Eliezer's Struggle to Keep his Faith in God Essay

Eliezer's Struggle to Keep his Faith in God - Essay Example Elie lost a mother and a small sister during the holocaust that aimed at slaughtering the Jews. Elie confronts the worst in humanity and the worst in him (Bloom, 39). Despite this dilapidating and worse environment, Elie keeps faith in God, though in sceptical on the delay to safeguard His people. It is vital to notice that, Wiesel perception about God changes when nothing happens to rescue people from the hands of the Germans. Wiesel remains sceptical on how God handles situations (Bloom, 38). This change in mind however does not change Elsie’s belief in God’s existence. It is noticeable that, Wiesel believes that, God’s power should be manifested in hard situations especially those facing the Jews. It is imperative to note that, Elie loses faith in God during the de-humanization process that was instituted by the Nazis, but continues to believe that, God exists. This context vividly explains Wiesel’s mind and understanding about God. Wiesel believes that , God is supernatural and no one can kill the dreams about God (Bloom, 34). It is however, paradoxical to realize that, the Nazis murder Elie’s vision about God. Elie laments, â€Å"Never shall I forget those flames which consumed my faith. Never shall I forget that nocturnal silence which deprived me, for all eternity, of the desire to live† it is flamboyant that the tone of anger and indelible grief in this passage reveals. Elie’s deep passionate feelings and believe about God was cleared off by the Nazi in a profound disillusionment (Bloom, 34). Wiesel believes that, the fear of God should be extended and manifested in human beings (Bloom, 56). This concept is vividly revealed in the love and passionate feelings expressed by Elie towards his ailing and weak father. Wiesel believes that God does the same to humankind. Elie is seen not thinking of abandoning his father, but of how to keep from losing him. This is exactly what God does to humanity (Bloom, 34). W iesel believes that, God does not abandon people but sticks with them. This context brings in a paradox, in that many people died and t question that disturbs Wiesel emerges, â€Å"Where is God?† After a dramatic execution of a resistance fighter at the camp, in which the young boy is strangled on the gallows because he is too light to break his neck, Elie’s disillusionment is markedly angrier and bitterer (Bloom, 39). Elie’s indulgence and perception about God tends to change after this incident. It is noteworthy, that Elie doubts God’s presence and undertaking. This is evident by the voice of man asking Elie from the background â€Å"where is God?† This depicts the change of mind and passion in God’s faith (Bloom, 40). Despite what Elie witnesses, a staunch element of trust takes centre stage, particularly, when a background voice answers the question on the presence of God. â€Å"He is here; He is hanging here on this gallows† (Blo om, 36). The happening of these events is attributable to Wiesel’s change in faith about God (Bloom, 39). It is imperative to note that, before the holocaust, Wiesel believed that, God is the sole protector and retaliator of the Jewish people. Wiesel believed that, whatever had happened before was according to God‘s great plans on the Jewish people (Bloom, 41). Wiesel accepted God’s will without further questioning. More over, when things got

Research Experiment Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Research Experiment - Assignment Example This theory also suggests that job attitudes are linked to job outcomes. Consequently, organizational attitudes are linked to organizational outcomes (Greenberg, 2013). Background Organizational behavior is a key determinant of how an organization should be managed and led, with the aim of increasing organizational effectiveness. As such, Organizational Behavior Units provide insight and knowledge that advances the understanding of how to manage and lead an organization, with the aim of increasing personal or organizational effectiveness (Ali et al., 2009). Encompassing aspects of sociology, psychology, communication and management, the course has its roots in Industrial and Organizational Psychology (Locke, 1976). This is because organizational behavior determines the effectiveness, hence success of the organization. The factors that affect the general conduct or behavior of an organization should, therefore, be brought in to perspective and manipulated to targets the achievement of ideal results. Indeed, a lot of research has been conducted to try to establish the factors that affect the work outcome in an organization. In particular, the attitude of employees has been deemed an essential variable in these studies. In assessing this variable, many researches have primarily focused on job satisfaction as the key measure of employee attitude (Ali et al., 2009). However, recent researches have delved in to the role of organizational commitment in determining employee attitude and intensions (Greenberg, 2013). The purpose of this study was to establish the factors that drive job satisfaction and organizational commitment at Subway Restaurants. As such, it assessed two variables: job performance and turnover intensions. Job performance has often been related to Job satisfaction more than organizational commitment, with studies establishing mixed results. While some studies have shown a strong correlation between the two, others argue that this correlation is negli gible (Ali et al., 2009). However, almost all of the studies conducted establish a negligible correlation between organizational commitment and job performance. On the other hand, turnover intensions are primarily a factor of organizational commitment. Indeed, studies have shown significant association between the two. However, these studies also show a considerable amount of correlation between turnover intension and Job satisfaction. In fact, studies of facet satisfaction have established significant association between turnover intensions and satisfaction with the job itself, and pay and promotions (Greenberg, 2013). However, combined comparisons of job satisfaction and organizational commitment with turnover intensions have established a greater correlation between turnover intensions and organizational commitment than with job satisfaction (Greenberg, 2013). These findings form the basis for my hypotheses in this research study. Research Questions The participants in this study were primarily the restaurant’s staff in the U.S. and included 2 Restaurant Managers, 3 part time Hospitality Employees, 2 full time Chefs, 2 part-time Administrative Assistant, and a full time Retail Clerk. They were required to answer ten research questions based on their level of agreement with the suggestions as follows: Strongly Agree (5) Agree (4) Most likely/Not sure (3) Probably not (2) Disagree (1)

The First Generation Currency Crisis Model Finance Essay

The First Generation Currency Crisis Model Finance Essay Reinhart, 1999). A currency crisis is an episode in which the exchange rate depreciates substantially during a short period of time. The models in this literature are often categorized as first-, second- or third-generation. FIRST GENERATION CURRENCY CRISIS MODEL: The classic first-generation models are those of Krugman (1979) and Flood and Garber (1984). It is a model without uncertainty. It states that, traders speculate against fixed exchange rate in order to profit from an anticipated speculation. Speculative attacks in this framework are inevitable and respect an entirely rational market response to persistently confliction internal and external macroeconomic targets. In first-generation models the collapse of a fixed exchange rate regime is caused by unsustainable fiscal policy. A hallmark of first-generation models is that the government runs a persistent primary deficit. This deficit implies that the government must either deplete assets, such as foreign reserves, or borrow to finance the deficit. The key ingredients of a first-generation model are its assumptions regarding purchasing power parity (PPP), the government budget constraint, the timing of deficits, the money demand function, the governments rule for abandoning the fixed ex change rate, and the post-crisis monetary policy. Burnside, Eichenbaum and Rebelo argue that their model accounts for the main characteristics of the Asian currency crisis. This explanation of the Asian currency crisis stresses the link between future deficits and current movements in the exchange rate. In first-generation models the government follows an exogenous rule to decide when to abandon the fixed exchange rate regime. The things to note about this model of currency crisis are- The root cause of the crisis is poor government policy. The source of the upward trend in the shadow exchange rate is given by the increase in domestic credit. The crisis, though sudden, is a deterministic event: the crisis is inevitable given he policies and the timing is in principle predictable. The first generation currency crisis model seen to do no harm. In this model, there is no effect on output, but even a richer model will not generated a real economy slump in the aftermath of a first generation currency crisis model. The crisis determination is a future policy stances that investors foresee, not the one observed in the past. The importance of policy choice in deciding to quit the fixed exchange rate regime. There was no mechanical link between capital flight and abandonment of the peg. There was no obvious trend in long-run equilibrium exchange reate. There was no evidence of irresponsible policies in any of the country involved. SECOND GENERATION CURRENCY CRISIS MODEL: The logic of this model is the interactions between expectations, macro economic trade-offs and decisions. This class of model is characterized by multiple equilibria and the interactions between market expectations and policy outcome can lead to a self-fulfilling crises. As long as the peg is credible this is the price the government is willing to pay because there are political and/or long-run economic goals. In second-generation models the government maximizes an explicit objective function (Obstfeld, 1994). This maximization problem dictates if and when the government will abandon the fixed exchange rate regime. Second-generation models generally exhibit multiple equilibria so that speculative attacks can occur because of self-fulfilling expectations. It differs with the first generation models in- 1. No irresponsible policy. 2. No predictability of the crisis and 3. If the country leaves the peg, there is no negative impact on employment and output. Since the monetary policy constraint is removed and the result is positive in terms of short-run macroeconomics benefits. 2. MORAL HAZARD Moral hazard is a situation in which one party in a transaction has more information than another. The party that is insulated from risk generally has more information about its actions and intentions than the party paying for the negative consequences of the risk. Moral hazard arises because an individual or institution does not take the full consequences and responsibilities of its doings, and therefore has a tendency to act less carefully than it alternately would, leaving another party to hold some responsibility for the consequences of those actions. Moral hazard also arises in a principal-agent problem, where one party, called an agent, acts on behalf of another party, called the principal. EXPANDED GOVERNMENT GUARANTEES FOR BANK LIABILITIES: Government provision of a financial safety net for financial institutions has long been a key element of the policy response to crises and the current crisis is no exception. This particular crisis is fairly severe however, so governments have felt obliged to go beyond the usual support measures, moving to expand existing guarantees and to introduce new ones, in some cases quite markedly. Valuation problems are also complicit in the duration of the problems. These and other related actions (such as loss sharing arrangements for assets and capital injections) appeared to have avoided a further loss of confidence on the part of market participants, by raising the likelihood that retail depositors and other creditors would continue to provide a stable source of funding for banks, thus reducing the threat of insolvency of these entities. Thus, these actions have bought time, with limited if any upfront fiscal costs. Actually, just like financial guarantee insurance companies, the governm ent earns a small fee from the debt issuer for lending out its top credit rating. There are nonetheless potentially substantial costs associated with these measures. Even if guarantees do not generate significant upfront fiscal costs, they create large contingent fiscal liabilities, as well as other potential costs that may arise as a result of distortions of incentives and competition. In recognition of this situation, the discussions of financial safety net issues at the past CMF meeting concluded that, going forward, policy makers need to consider the issue of exit strategies from expanded guarantees. Another important issue related to the additional guarantees is their pricing. In this respect, the premise of the discussion in the present note is that potential distortions should be limited to the extent that government guarantees are priced appropriately. By contrast, distortions are more likely to arise where guarantees are offered at prices that appear to be substantially low er than market or some form of fair prices. It has long been known that financial intermediaries whose liabilities are guaranteed by the government pose a serious problem of moral hazard. The U.S. savings and loan debacle is the classic example: because depositors in thrifts were guaranteed by FSLIC, they had no incentive to police the lending of the institutions in which they placed their money; since the owners of thrifts did not need to put much of their own money at risk, they had every incentive to play a game of heads I win, tails the taxpayer loses. WORKING OF CIRCULAR PROCESS IN REVERSE TO CAUSE ASSET PRICES COLLAPSES The mechanism of crisis involved that same circular process in reverse: falling asset prices made the insolvency of intermediaries visible, forcing them to cease operations, leading to further asset deflation. This circularity, in turn, can explain both the remarkable severity of the crisis and the apparent vulnerability of the Asian economies to self-fulfilling crisis which in turn helps us understand the phenomenon of contagion between economies with few visible economic links. Asian economies experienced a noticeable boom-bust cycle not only in investment but also or even especially in asset prices. Presumably this reflected the fact that assets were in imperfectly elastic supply. The easiest way to do this is to imagine that the only available asset is land, which cannot be either created or destroyed. Again, let us initially consider a two-period model. In the first period investors bid for land, setting its price. In the second period they receive rents, which are uncertain at the time of bidding. But now suppose that there are financial intermediaries, once again able to borrow at the world interest rate (again normalized to zero) because they are perceived as being guaranteed. And also as before, we assume that owners need not put any of their own money at risk, but that competition among the intermediaries eliminates any expected economic profit. The result is obvious: intermediaries will be willing to bid on the land, based not on the expected value of future rent but on the Pangloss value in this case 100. So all land will end up owned by intermediaries, and the price of land will be double what it would be in an undistorted economy. 3. MORAL HAZARD CAUSE A DEADWEIGHT SOCIAL LOSS The phenomenon of undertaking risky and often corrupt loans and transactions, but knowing that if the gamble fails someone else (usually the state) will pick up the tab, is known as moral hazard. In the table 1, two alternative investments are available. One yields a known present value of $107 million; the other will yield $120 million if conditions are favorable, but only $80 million if they are not. The good state and the bad state are equally likely, so that the expected returns on this risky investment are $100 million. However, the owner of the financial intermediary knows that while he can capture the excess returns in the good state, he can walk away from the losses in the bad state. So if he chooses the safe investment he gains a sure 7; but if he chooses the risky investment he gains 20 in the good state, loses nothing in the bad state, for an expected gain of 10. Thus his incentive is to choose the risky investment, even though it has a lower expected return. And this distortion of investment decisions produces a deadweight social loss: the expected net return on the invested capital falls from $7 million to zero. 4,5, 6 7. DIFFERENCES BETWEEN THE EXPECTED VALUE OF LAND RENT AND ITS CORRESPONDING PENGLOSS VALUE. There is a two period model to explain land value. In the first period, investors bid for land and setting its price. In the second period they receive rents, which are uncertain at the time of bidding. The financial intermediaries will be willing to bid on the land, based not on the expected value of future rent but on the Pangloss value. So all land will end up owned by intermediaries, and the price of land will be double what it would be in an undistorted economy. In an undistorted economy we can solve backwards for the price. The expected rent in period 3, and therefore the price of land purchased at the end of period 2, is 50. The expected return on land purchased in period 1 is therefore the expected rent in period 2 (50) plus the expected price at which it can be sold (also 50), for a first-period price of 100. This is also, of course, the total expected rent over the two periods. Now suppose that intermediaries are in a position to borrow with guarantees. Again working backwa rd, at the end of period 2 they will be willing to pay the Pangloss value of third-period rent, 100. In period 1 they will be willing to pay the most they could hope to realize off a piece of land: the Pangloss rent in period 2, plus the Pangloss price of land at the end of that period. So the price of land with intermediation will be 200 in period 1 again, twice the undistorted price. It seems, then, that the multi-period version of the model, in which part of the return to investment depends on the future prices of assets, makes no real difference to the distortion of those prices imposed by guaranteed intermediaries. However, this result changes in a dramatic way once we allow for the possibility of changes in the financial regime that is, if we believe that moral hazard may be a sometime thing. 8. KRUGMANS MODEL JUSTIFICATION ON OCUURANCE OF SELF-FULFILLING FINANCIAL CRISIS Using a signalling approach-based EWS model, this paper has attempted to provide more empirical evidence on the causes of the 1997 Asian financial crisis, with a view to discriminating between the two hypotheses of weak fundamentals and investors panic. The results show that the overall composite leading index of the EWS model issued persistent warning signals prior to the 1997 crisis in not just a few, but all of the five countries most affected by the crisis. This finding appears not to square well with the investor panic, market overreaction and regional contagion postulate. Instead, it lends support to the hypothesis that weaknesses in economic and financial fundamentals in these countries triggered the crisis. First, in most countries under consideration, there were appreciations in the real exchange rate against both the US dollar and the basket currencies of their major trading partners. The real appreciations appeared to have contributed to the deteriorations in these countri es trade and current account positions. Second, there were apparent problems in the capital account, as indicated by persistent warning signals by the ratio of M2 to foreign reserves in the case of Indonesia, and the ratio of foreign liabilities to foreign assets of the banking sector in Indonesia, Malaysia, and Thailand. Third, there was strong evidence of excessive growth of domestic credit, particularly in Korea, Malaysia, Philippines, and Thailand. Last, there was also evidence of deteriorations in the real sector in most countries, and the burst of asset price bubbles, especially in Korea and Thailand. The fact that all these individual leading indicators issued warning signals prior to the 1997 Asian crisis indicates that they had reached the critical levels that historically had often triggered currency crises, lending further support to the weak fundamentals hypothesis. 9. EXPLANATION OF ASIAN CRISIS 1997 BY KRUGMANS MODEL The crucial point here is that capital is not so much interested in aggregate growth rates as sectorial profitabilitythus a growing economy might still experience declining profitability in certain sectors which in turn can scare off financial capital and possibly later productive capital. However, in East Asia, this would have meant hundreds of banks and finance houses being forced to shut downthreatening not only the financial system of Asia, but also institutions across the globe with which they have myriads of dealings. The credit crunch that followed led to massive layoffsthis is the classic paying for the crisis. The East Asian crisis does shed light on developments in the world economy which make it highly likely that similar crises will erupt in the future. Such developments relate to the deregulated nature of world financial markets, so that the triggering mechanism of a crisis may be financial (currency devaluations, runs on banks, etc) even though the ultimate origins lie in the real economy . This is not to deny that financial panics may also emanate in situations where there has been no significant deterioration in the real economyabove all on the profit rates. Hence when profits start to dip, or are likely to fall below expectation, a careful calculation needs to be madeeither stay with the gamble or move elsewhere. In regard to direct investment, the decision naturally cannot be acted upon with immediate effect, but in financial markets exiting from markets can be done almost instantaneouslyand this potentially accentuates the stampede and contagion. Evidence suggests that the origins of financial instability in East Asia do indeed reside within the real economyabove all in the falling returns on investment.

Scouts Learning Experiences in To Kill a Mockingbird Essays -- Englis

Scout's Learning Experiences in To Kill a Mockingbird In the novel, To Kill a Mockingbird, Scout learns valuable lessons on the evil of prejudice present in her Southern town of Maycomb, on the true nature of courage, and on the dangers of judging others before "...climbing into their skin and walking around in it." Set in the mid 1930s, Scout Finch is a young girl living with her older brother, Jem, and her lawyer father. Being a kid, Scout has the simple duties of a minor, to have fun and to stay out of trouble. But along the way, she also learns many important things. Although the majority of her hometown is prejudiced, Scout's innocent mind remains non prejudice and caring of others. To her, all is equal, so therefore, should be treated equal. There is no doubt that Scout's character is one whom is an individual, someone whom will stick to her own perspective no matter how cruel and racist other people can be. In her adult world, Scout learns to treat all people fairly with dignity and respect. One of the most important role models in Scout's life, is her father, Atticus. Atticus is a small town lawyer who deals with a very tough case involving a black man and his rights. Although Atticus is a single father, he manages to teach his children right from wrong. He makes it a common practice to live his life as he would like his children to live theirs, and therefore displays the characteristics of an honest, respectable, and kind man. Atticus demonstrates his feelings for...

Mydin Hypermarket Essay

How MYDIN grew from a small grocery shop till a Multi-Billion Ringgit Retail Chain MYDIN business activity is in retailing and wholesaling. The products range from food line, household, soft-lines and hard-lines items. Hard-line products include hardware, electrical, stationery, porcelain and toys. Whilst soft-line comprises of textiles and fabrics products. Food line includes confectionery, drinks and beverages, delicatessen and dairy products. In their early years of operations, MYDIN’s focus has always been in the non-food sector until they bought over the first supermarket in Selayang in 1997. Each of the branches has their own business category, based on the capacity of goods traded. The category comprises hypermarket, emporium, minimarket, convenience shop, franchise store and bazaar. Currently, MYDIN operates more than 90 outlets nationwide inclusive of 16 hypermarkets, 16 emporiums, 3 bazaars, 48 minimarkets (MyMydin), 8 convenience shops (MyMart) and 6 franchise outlets (Mydin Mart). Each of the hypermarkets is located in MYDIN Mall. Above all, MYDIN operates its business based on ‘Halal’ concepts and stresses on honesty, sincerity and good discipline in all aspects of its business. Company Vision MYDIN is the world’s leading distributor of competitive â€Å"Halal† goods and services Company Mission We aim to be the leading wholesale and retail company by providing the best value, wide assortment of goods and continuous excellence based on our business formula Source: http://www.mydin.com.my/mydin/about-mydin

A Letter from Buddha to his Disciple

You have asked of me for help in how to heal your father of his sickness. I appreciate that your father is a good and righteous man and you are blessed to have had a good man for a father. But I cannot take away his pain. That is something that no one can really do for if there is anything that is constant in every person's life, it is suffering. Life is suffering. That is one of the noble truths. Learn this and it can just be the very thing that would bring you, your family, and even your father enlightenment.Also remember that sorcery and miracles promised by magicians will do you no good for it is against the Laws of Karma and can only bring harm. I have seen the suffering and ugliness caused by disease and the sadness caused by man's mortality. (Moore-Brooder, 2005, p. 499) Truly if one would compare the life I led with my family one would say I am truly favored by the gods. When I was young I lived a life full of pleasures and worldly vices. But it can be a paradox on how one's blessings are defined by pain and suffering.It was only after bearing witness to the many instances and forms of suffering, that I sought fulfillment of my existence and ultimately, enlightenment. Man's life is incomplete without pain. Even from the time of birth both mother and child experience pain. But once one has transcended pain, he becomes a new man and thus, reborn. I give you my story of the mother Gotami-tissa whose son succumbed to disease. (Morgan, 1956, p. 23) She went from door to door seeking a miracle that would bring back her son's life continually being told that such a thing was impossible.She came to me for help, wringing her hands and prostrating herself so that I may bring her son back to life. I asked her for mustard seeds. Not just any ordinary mustard seed, but she must collect seeds that came from homes that remained untouched by grief and death. Later on she came back to me and confessed that she was unable to get any seed for all the homes she visited hav e experienced death. Death is not a circumstance special to just one person. It is unavoidable and constant. By understanding this, she was cured of her grief and has been able to continue living as a new woman.In my teachings I have continually mentioned man's mortality, his impermanence. Nothing on earth is permanent other than death. Its stealth is legendary and one never really knows when it will come. I urge you my son, to practice dharma in order that your life may be fulfilled and protected from bad karma. For if you do no wrong, why should there be consequences? Today we see many people doing everything within their power to attain their ambition. Some may perhaps reason out â€Å"it is not so wrong† but truly, if one would like to live on the side of right, one has to choose definitely between right or wrong without compromise.Live in freedom and self-mastery to fully enjoy the gift that is life. Bad things are constant. Suffering is constant. The only thing you can really control and gain mastery of is yourself. Learn to take the middle path in life for it is the way to happiness. Know that a life of extremes is bad and will ultimately bring more suffering. I exhort you to learn to look within yourself and develop an understanding and acceptance of what goes on around you. Aiming to change others can sometimes be a futile practice.I myself can teach what I have learned and woken up to realize, yet true enlightenment can only come from within a person himself. Some may perhaps say, I will seek enlightenment later or I have tried to understand life before but failed. But past failure is past and the future is uncertain in many ways. Indeed, it can happen that tomorrow or later in the day may be all of what remains of the future. Seek enlightenment now, and cherish the moment. So when death comes, you do not regret nor do you have fear of the next life for you die with knowledge of having lived not just a good life, but a righteous one.– B uddha References Morgan, K. W. (Ed. ). (1956). The Path of the Buddha Buddhism Interpreted by Buddhists. New York: Ronald Press. Retrieved September 23, 2007, from Questia database: http://www. questia. com/PM. qst? a=o&d=5883323 Moore-Bruder. (2005). Philosophy: The Power of Ideas, Sixth Edition Ohio: McGraw-Hill Carrithers, M. (2001). The Buddha: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press. Retrieved September 23, 2007, from Questia database: http://www. questia. com/PM. qst? a=o&d=101647070

What Beleiving Evolution Means

What Beleiving Evolution Means Free Online Research Papers Knowledge of evolution can affect the way you view different areas of life, but it wasn’t always as widely accepted (even though it is still not entirely accepted). For the past sixty years, biological beliefs, such as evolution, have been hot topics from both a political and religious perspective. It has raised controversy in the religious world and has not made things easy in the political world. However radical these ideas used to seem, they are getting much more support in both the political and religious worlds. According to Biologists, there is no such thing a race. They believe that race from human to human (even organism to organism) does not exist. At first this is an interesting thought. People are generally raised to believe that there are different races in the world, while their origins are differing. This statement is slightly true, excluding the different races. Biologists refer to DNA to prove their point on this subject. The only differences between one â€Å"race† to another â€Å"race† are a few different genotypes and phenotypes. A genotype is a combination of genes, and a combination of genotypes will result in a Trait (a phenotype is any Trait). Between the differences in phenotypes (which could range anywhere from skin color to health issues) and the cultures in which one grows up in creates the different variety of humans in this world. However, different cultures have definitely had problems with the relatively new idea of evolution. Evolution, in comparison to religion, is a very new subject. There were a few scientists that were before their times and helped build the foundation of beliefs for evolution. However, evolution has only started to raise questions about the validity of the ideas and the controversial ideas behind it for about sixty years. When it came to the religion vs. science question for me, even when I was young, I always leaned toward science. Even though I was raised Jewish, had a Bar-Mitzvah and was part of a youth group for most of high school. All the proof I needed to start believing in science and more particularly evolution began with fossils. I thought they poked a huge hole in the religion idea being millions of years old, when the religious world is only 7,000 years or so old. Then the similarities between species, such as apes and humans, were too perfect to even consider another way. This drove me to believe that evolution was no accident. The truths behind evolution seem to be overwhelming, for me, and it would seem illogical to not include evolution as the main reason for why people are who they are. The knowledge of evolution has definitely influenced my perspective on the world both politically and religiously. Research Papers on What Beleiving Evolution MeansGenetic EngineeringCanaanite Influence on the Early Israelite ReligionRelationship between Media Coverage and Social andPersonal Experience with Teen PregnancyWhere Wild and West MeetHip-Hop is ArtThree Concepts of Psychodynamic19 Century Society: A Deeply Divided EraAssess the importance of Nationalism 1815-1850 EuropeHonest Iagos Truth through Deception

Philosophy of Libertarianism

Philosophy of Libertarianism The word libertarianism comes from the word liberty. It is a political philosophy advocating for liberty, freedom, voluntary and peaceful association of individuals without any form of coercion. Believers in libertarianism appreciate and try as much as they can to see that all human beings maximize their various opportunities to attain their goals in life. They argue that, human beings should be left on their own to do what they desire without coercion or intimidation.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Philosophy of Libertarianism specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Those in this paradigm shift agitate or rather advocate for a society that is self-governed or to be governed by a small government. This is because every human being has his own life to live as well as property and therefore, society should respect this by leaving everybody to determine the course of his life. Everybody in the society should show respect to o ne another. They therefore believe that every individual has freedom to do what they feel but not to infringe on the rights of others. Libertarianism is therefore a combination of liberty, responsibility and tolerance. Liberty implies the freedom to live one’s life in peace as one chooses, responsibility implying not to use force against other people except when defending yourself and tolerance implying that one should honor and respect the peace of other people. The strides that the world has made today can be attributed to the liberty people have been provided. For instance, liberty has contributed to respect of civil liberty, free markets and self-ownership. Without liberty, many people would still be prisoners of others. Furthermore, without liberty, the notion of free markets could be non-existence and therefore people could not be able to sell their products across their boarders. The proponents and historian also had their thoughts about libertarianism. Libertarianism was also viewed by historians such as Woodrock as the means through which revolution and reformation was to be achieved. This implied that the society was to be reformed through democratic means, consensus and not dictatorship. Likewise, other philosophers understood libertarianism as a form of governance whereby the center of power was to be decentralized to individuals. Individuals were to take control of their lives and not the government. Therefore, in conclusion, it is imperative to note that the proponents and philosophy of libertarianism meant or advocated for liberty and freedom of the people. Society has no obligation to be governed by an authority but people are supposed to enjoy their freedom as well as respect others’ rights.

The Effects of War on the Environment

The Effects of War on the Environment The natural environment has been a strategic element of war since the first rock was thrown by the first cave dweller. The armies of ancient Rome and Assyria, to ensure the total capitulation of their enemies, reportedly sowed salt into the cropland of their foes, making the soil useless for farming- an early use of military herbicide, and one of the most devastating environmental effects of war. But history also provides lessons in eco-sensitive warfare. The Bible, in Deuteronomy 20:19, stays the hand of the warrior to minimize wars impact on nature and men alike: When you besiege a city a long time, to make war against it in order to capture it, you shall not destroy its trees by swinging an axe against them; for you may eat from them, and you shall not cut them down. For is the tree of the field a man, that it should be besieged by you? War and the Environment: Weve Been Lucky so Far War is waged differently today, of course, and has widespread environmental impacts that last far longer. The technology has changed, and the potential effects of the technology are very different, says Carl Bruch, co-director of international programs at the Environmental Law Institute in Washington, D.C. Bruch, who is also the co-author of The Environmental Consequences of War: Legal, Economic, and Scientific Perspectives, notes that modern chemical, biological, and nuclear warfare has the potential to wreak unprecedented environmental havoc that, fortunately, we havent seen- yet. This is a great threat, Bruch says. But in some cases, precision weapons and other technological advances can shield the environment by targeting key facilities, leaving other areas relatively unscathed. You could make the argument that these weapons have the ability to minimize collateral damage, says Geoffrey Dabelko, director of the Environmental Change and Security Program at the Woodrow Wilson Center for Scholars in Washington, D.C. Its Local: the Impact of War Today Warfare today also occurs infrequently between independent nations; more often, armed conflict breaks out between rival factions within a nation. These localized civil wars, according to Bruch, are usually beyond the reach of international treaties and bodies of law. Internal conflict is viewed as a matter of sovereignty- an internal matter, he says. As a result, environmental damage, like human rights violations, occurs unchecked by outside organizations. Though skirmishes, armed conflicts, and open warfare vary tremendously by region and by weapons used, the effects of war on the environment usually involve the following broad categories. Habitat Destruction and Refugees Perhaps the most famous example of habitat devastation occurred during the Vietnam War  when U.S. forces sprayed herbicides like Agent Orange on the forests and mangrove swamps that provided cover to guerrilla soldiers. An estimated 20 million gallons of herbicide were used, decimating about 4.5 million acres in the countryside. Some regions are not expected to recover for several decades. Additionally, when warfare causes the mass movement of people, the resulting impacts on the environment can be catastrophic. Widespread deforestation, unchecked hunting, soil erosion, and contamination of land and water by human waste occur when thousands of humans are forced to settle in a new area. During the Rwandan conflict in 1994, much of that countrys Akagera National Park was opened to refugees; as a result, local populations of animals like the roan antelope and the eland became extinct. Invasive Species Military ships, cargo airplanes, and trucks often carry more than soldiers and munitions; non-native plants and animals can also ride along, invading new areas and wiping out native species in the process. Laysan Island in the Pacific Ocean was once home to a number of rare plants and animals, but troop movements during and after World War II introduced rats that nearly wiped out the Laysan finch and the Laysan rail, as well as bringing in sandbur, an invasive plant that crowds out the native bunchgrass that local birds depend on for habitat. Infrastructure Collapse Among the first and most vulnerable targets of attack in a military campaign are the enemys roads, bridges, utilities, and other infrastructure. While these dont form part of the natural environment, the destruction of wastewater treatment plants, for example, severely degrades regional water quality. During the 1990s fighting in Croatia, chemical manufacturing plants were bombed; because treatment facilities for chemical spills werent functioning, toxins flowed downstream unchecked until the conflict ended. Increased Production Even in regions not directly affected by warfare, increased production in manufacturing, agriculture and other industries that support a war effort can wreak havoc on the natural environment. During World War I, former wilderness areas of the United States came under cultivation for wheat, cotton, and other crops, while vast stands of timber were clear-cut to meet wartime demand for wood products. Timber in Liberia, oil in Sudan, and diamonds in Sierra Leone are all exploited by military factions. These provide a revenue stream that is used to buy weapons, says Bruch. Scorched Earth Practices, Hunting, and Poaching The destruction of your own homeland is a time-honored, albeit tragic, wartime custom. The term scorched earth originally applied to the burning of crops and buildings that might feed and shelter the enemy, but its now applied to any environmentally destructive strategy. To thwart invading Japanese troops during the Second Sino-Japanese War (1937-1945), Chinese authorities dynamited a dike on the Yellow River, drowning thousands of Japanese soldiers- and thousands of Chinese peasants- while also flooding millions of square miles of land. Similarly, if an army crawls on its stomach, as is often says, then feeding an army often requires hunting local animals, especially larger mammals that often have lower rates of reproduction. In the ongoing war in Sudan, poachers seeking meat for soldiers and civilians have had a tragic effect on bush animal populations in Garamba National Park, just across the border in the Democratic Republic of Congo. At one point, the number of elephants shrunk from 22,000 to 5,000, and there were only 15 white rhinos left alive. Biological, Chemical, and Nuclear Weapons The production, testing, transport and use of these advanced weapons is perhaps the single most destructive effects of war on the environment. Though their use has been strictly limited since the bombing of Japan by the U.S. military at the end of World War II, military analysts have grave concerns about the proliferation of nuclear material and chemical and biological weaponry. Weve been very fortunate that we have not seen the devastation that we might see, says Bruch. Researchers point to the use of depleted uranium (DU) as one particularly dangerous military trend. DU is a byproduct of the uranium-enrichment process. Almost twice as dense as lead, its valued in weapons for its ability to penetrate tank armor and other defenses. An estimated 320 tons of DU were used in the Gulf War in 1991; in addition to soil contamination, experts are concerned that soldiers and civilians may have been exposed to dangerous levels of the compound. How Environmental Problems Lead to War While the effects of war on the environment may be obvious, whats less clear are the ways that environmental damage itself leads to conflict. Factions in resource-poor countries like those in Africa, the Mideast, and Southeast Asia have historically used military force for material gain; they have few other options. Bruch explains that once armed conflict begins, soldiers and populations under siege must find immediate sources of food, water, and shelter, so theyre forced to adapt their thinking to short-term solutions, not long-term sustainability. This short-term desperation leads to a vicious cycle of conflict, followed by people who meet their immediate needs in unsustainable ways, bringing deprivation and disillusionment, which then leads to more conflict. One of the chief challenges is to break that cycle, Bruch says. Can Warfare Protect Nature? It seems counterintuitive, but some have argued that military conflicts often end up preserving the natural environment. Its one of the findings thats utterly contrary to expectations, says Jurgen Brauer, Ph.D., professor of economics at Augusta State University in Augusta, Ga. The most preserved area in all of Korea is the demilitarized zone because you have the exclusion of human activity, he says. Other researchers have noted that despite the massive amounts of herbicide use during the Vietnam War, more forests have been lost in that country since the war ended than during it, due to peacetime commerce and Vietnams quest for prosperity. The coal-black skies caused by the Kuwaiti oil fires in 1991 provided dramatic visual evidence of war-related environmental damage. However, these oil fires burned in one month roughly the amount of oil burned by the United States in a single day. Peace can be damaging, too, says Dabelko. You have some of these ironic twists. But experts are quick to emphasize that this is not an argument in favor of armed conflict. War is not good for the environment, adds Brauer, who is also an author of War and Nature: The Environmental Consequences of War in a Globalized World. And Bruch notes that warfare only delays the environmental damage of peaceful human activity and commerce. It may provide a respite, but the long-term effects of war arent that different from what happens under commercial development, he says. Winning the Peace As military planning evolves, it becomes apparent that the environment now plays a greater role in successful combat, especially after an armed conflict ends. At the end of the day, if youre trying to occupy an area, you have a strong incentive not to ruin it, Dabelko says. The aforementioned biblical quote from Deuteronomy about preserving trees is, perhaps, good advice for the ages. And some warriors are learning that theres more to be gained from preserving the environment than in destroying it. In war-torn Mozambique, former military combatants have been hired to work together as park rangers protecting the wildlife and natural habitats that they once sought to destroy. That built bridges between the military and the park service. It has worked, Bruch says. Natural resources can be very important in providing jobs and opportunities in post-conflict societies.

Genocide War between the Hutu and Tutsi people of Rwanda Essay

Genocide War between the Hutu and Tutsi people of Rwanda - Essay Example Causes of the genocide Though the Rwandan genocide occurred in the year 1994, its causes were wide spread into the country’s deep history that can be traced to independence period. Both sociological and psychological factors, as a result, accumulated to erupt into the horrific tribal based killings. One of the major sociological factors into the genocide was racial difference between the two communities. Though experts argue that the killings were not ethnically initiated, the genocide involved two ethic groups against each other. The difference between the two communities that identifies superiority complex among the Hutus played a major role. The enjoyed peace that the country had for about five decades prior to the genocide explains this. The country for example enjoyed peace and security in the ‘five-decade’ period while under the rule of the Hutus. A move to shift power from the community was the immediate cause of the killings. As a result, it is understanda ble that power struggle that was racially based led to the genocide. The powerful elites from the Hutu community could not accept a shift of power from their community and mobilize the Hutus into the killings (Stone, p. 31- 33). Another sociological factor into the genocide was the ‘long-term’ displacement of people from their ancestral land. Also viewed as an immediate cause of the genocide was the move by displaced people, who had in the past been forced to flee to other countries, to mobilize themselves into rebel forces with the aim of reclaiming their land. The rebel movement, that was seen as a threat to the Hutus power then triggered mobilization of the Hutus community by their elites. This is because the rebels were majorly associated with the Tutsi community. The two communities had however coexisted peacefully and a large number of Hutus undertook the killings for fear of being attacked by their fellow Hutus. The organization into the Hutus attacks on the Tuts is particularly spread the message that even Hutus who sympathized or aided Tutsis would be killed. The Hutus, as an ethnic group was therefore forced into the killings. Superiority complex among the Hutus was another factor towards into the killings. Even in the absence of manifested inter racial hatred, the Hutus traditionally perceived the Tutsis to be inferior and degraded. This explains why the Hutu elites could not tolerate a power shift to the Tutsis (stone, p. 31- 33). Psychological factors into the genocide on the other hand included fear among the Hutus elites. While the elites feared power shift to the rebel group, the organizers threatened the Hutus community into participation (Stone, p. 38- 40). David however identifies a mental seed, planted by the colonialist, as having played a role in psychological differences between the two communities into the final conflict (David, n.p.). Timing of the genocide The Rwandan genocide took place in the year 1994. It started in the month of April and ended in July. Clark explains that the genocide took about 100 days (p. 12). Acknowledgement of the genocide The international community, individually as nations and collectively through the United Nations, recognized the Rwandan genocide. National leaders for example recognized the event and their failure to prevent it. The United Nation’s move to establish an international court was also an indication the international c

Criminology Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words - 6

Criminology - Essay Example Wade. Romney overtly expressed his distaste for abortion and was proud of his Pro-Life views. He actively sought the support of people who wished to overturn the Roe vs. Wade and further established that his presidency would discontinue the Federal funding provided to organization that supported abortion. On the other hand, democratic nominee Obama had openly criticized Romney for his lack of consistency over the matter, as he had expressed an inclination towards the Pro-choice stance on the matter; Obama campaign was quick to criticize this move on Romney’s part and accused him of ‘playing politics’. (CNN, 2012) It was indeed ostensible that Romney, a former proponent of the Pro-choice stance on the matter had quickly molded his views according to the Republican point of view. This was a questionable move on part of the Romney campaign that may have lead to the loss of support, however Obama campaign had not only promised to preserve the Roe vs. Wade ruling but also gave people the hope that they would actively work to reduce the need for abortion in the society (CNN, 2012). He believed in maintaining the federal funding provided to family planning agencies, but he had elucidated on the fact that he wished to protect women’s interest without infringing upon their rights and wanted to embolden the efficacy of other methods that would prevent an unwanted conception. From a sociological perspective, Abortion represents a symbolic interactionist social issue, because it is an issue that entails multiple facets that has to be taken into account and rouses several different interpretations that leads to a disparity in public opinion. In other words, individuals may regulate their opinion on an issue according to their interpretation of the matter, which is subjected to change. Abortion is a multifaceted issue, it legalization and

Wal-Mart A Progressive Success Story Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words - 2

Wal-Mart A Progressive Success Story - Essay Example The assignment therefore greatly enhanced my prior knowledge of diverse economic terms and models, thus ensuring there is more deeply entrenched in my mind. The assignment has, therefore, made me better comprehend the classroom learning to a more practical level. the research made me come to term with the real meaning of strategic management in regards to marketing strategies as well as being able to adequately read financial data to ascertain a company’s performance indexes both in the short term (quarterly or annually) and long-term (five years). The study was, therefore, a veritable learning curve for me. The study has mostly enhanced my problem-solving skills including sharpening my analytical skills as previously formidable financial terms like strategic management, turnkey ventures, franchising, comparative industrial analysis and performance indicators as well as other diverse financial terms like earnings ratios started to make sense. The module has also enhanced my communication and team building as I realized that the success of the firm is augmented by acquiring strategic advantages embodied by skilled human resources and efficient supply chain management. Bolles (1996) describes transferable skills as, ‘skills developed in one situation which can be transferred to another situation’. This module has just as the case study firm, transferred ‘core competencies to foreign markets’, likewise imparted these same competencies in my mind.

One full page response paper for each article__total up to 11 articles Assignment

One full page response paper for each article__total up to 11 articles - Assignment Example This speech is interesting an uplifting. There is, of course, a beautiful literary discussion occurring but, also, the interpretation that he may be instilling in others in formidable. Today we live in a world where reality television and the cyber lives we lead on social media are making us more critical of others, not more empathetic. We need to continue to feel for others and educate ourselves so that we can contribute to positive endeavors and productive changes when needed. The only way we can achieve that is to not allow ourselves to become deluded that we are the centers of our own little universe (Wallace 1-2). This is speech is well-written and conveys its messages beautifully. It was a pleasure to read. The American English language is an incredibly difficult language to learn especially if you are from somewhere far away and the land and its language are completely foreign to you. We hear people with accents or broken English everyday who sometimes mispronounce the words or convey the verbiage poorly. Some people would criticize their lack of skill and fluency, while others might give them credit for making the effort. Amy Tan’s article, â€Å"MotherTongue,† is a fascinating look from the perspective of a child raised by someone who speaks broken English with thick Asian overtones. She explains that while most people would find her mother’s use of the English language clumsy and simplistic, to her daughter it was perfectly beautiful and made perfect sense, because that is her mother and she understands her just fine (Tan76-80). There is also a wonderful and empowering aspect to this article. It is when she discusses throughout the world how Asians are pressured and stereotyped into doing mathematics and accounting, seldom the humanities, and never English studies However, she defied the stereotypes around her

Right to the City - KSA Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Right to the City - KSA - Essay Example Right to the city refers to the responses to social injustices and neoliberal urbanization in various countries worldwide. The aspects of human rights are prevalent the concept of right to the city in the social context. Human rights refer to the ability of a particular authority or organization to uphold different of freedom of a particular group or an individual. The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia violate the rights of its citizens through various contexts such as inadequate housing, limitations to communication and upholding of corporal punishments based on the guidelines of the Sharia law. This paper examines various aspects of human rights and housing in KSA and provides recommendation for promotion of the human rights. The fundamental law in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia does not provide the complete concept of human rights. The issue of human rights is prevalent in the country due to the strict regulations provided by the Muslim law. In this case, various authorities in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia have integrated different guidelines of the Islamic religion into the federal law, which hinders initiatives to uphold human rights in the country (Almihdar, 2009). Women comprise of the most affected population regarding the aspect of human rights in KSA. The rights of the citizens of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia are abused daily due to the integration of the religious concepts into the country’s legislation. This limits efforts by different human rights organization to campaign for human rights in the country.

Mobile Development Languages Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Mobile Development Languages - Research Paper Example But, nowadays, the main concerns are starting to move somewhat in a diverse way. In this regard, a mobile phone is a wide purpose device that facilitates not simply to converse however as well to earn, discover, communicate with friends or relatives and entertain themselves by using different utilities offered by the mobile manufacturers. All these features and facilities are accomplished particularly through the development of mobile applications (gfmstudio, 2011). This report presents a comprehensive analysis of some of the main aspects and areas of the mobile programming languages paradigm. The basic aim of this report is to analyze some of the prime areas regarding the evolution of mobile programming languages paradigm, discuss its main qualities, comparison with the traditional programming languages in addition to popular operation systems applications of the mobile programming languages. ... It is estimated that in January 2011 there were over two hundred mobile trademarks internationally as well as that is predictable to raise over the subsequent three years. In addition, at present most powerful mobile application is Google’s Android mobile operating system that executes over a huge variety of Android facilitated devices plus a rising variety of Tablets. Android application is offered by Google as an open source framework as well as is able to be integrated with Mac OS X, Windows plus Linux and an application developer is able to select his Integrated Development Environment, diverse plug-ins offered for Eclipse (WanaRUA, 2011) and (LMU, 2005). Mobile application development is the procedure through which mobile applications are designed and built for small low-power handheld systems like that enterprise digital assistants, PDAs or else personal digital assistants, otherwise mobile phones. In addition, these mobile applications are either already installed on co mmunication phones system in the course of downloaded or manufactured for clients from the application and other mobile applications system distribution platforms. In view of the fact that mobile devices have become pervasive items the moment people utilized mobile phones, PDAs and smart phones wherever and at anytime. On the other hand, the design and development of mobile applications is not a simple job since the development of mobile applications is completely different from the traditional software development processes. Additionally, the project managers are not able to without difficulty judge the risks and challenges of a mobile application development project because of the troubles to match up to a variety of

Right to the City - KSA Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Right to the City - KSA - Essay Example Right to the city refers to the responses to social injustices and neoliberal urbanization in various countries worldwide. The aspects of human rights are prevalent the concept of right to the city in the social context. Human rights refer to the ability of a particular authority or organization to uphold different of freedom of a particular group or an individual. The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia violate the rights of its citizens through various contexts such as inadequate housing, limitations to communication and upholding of corporal punishments based on the guidelines of the Sharia law. This paper examines various aspects of human rights and housing in KSA and provides recommendation for promotion of the human rights. The fundamental law in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia does not provide the complete concept of human rights. The issue of human rights is prevalent in the country due to the strict regulations provided by the Muslim law. In this case, various authorities in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia have integrated different guidelines of the Islamic religion into the federal law, which hinders initiatives to uphold human rights in the country (Almihdar, 2009). Women comprise of the most affected population regarding the aspect of human rights in KSA. The rights of the citizens of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia are abused daily due to the integration of the religious concepts into the country’s legislation. This limits efforts by different human rights organization to campaign for human rights in the country.

The Treatment of Heroes in Ancient Poetry and Modern Film Essay

The Treatment of Heroes in Ancient Poetry and Modern Film - Essay Example However, these solutions often leave a wake of destruction behind them. At the base of each man's soul is a deep-seated sense of respect for the tenets of honor and courage. One of these men is Odysseus, king of Ithaca. Agamemnon and Menelaus drag him away from his peaceful home, where he leaves his wife and infant son for a war that will take ten years, and a journey home that will take twice that, stories chronicled in Homer's Iliad and Odyssey. The other is Detective Martin Riggs of the Los Angeles Police Department. The Lethal Weapon movie series shows how he tries to find and maintain a sense of personal peace while being pulled into chaos by criminal after criminal. Both of these men fit the description of the hero that has transcended time to become an idea that audiences all over the world have enjoyed since performance art began. The most dominant force in the hero is "competitiveness".1 The ancient Greeks loved athletic competitions, and it is no surprise that Homer's twin epics feature them: Odysseus must watch the games at Phaeacia before he is allowed to journey home, and Odysseus sets up a deadly contest in his own castle in Ithaca, ostensibly to give away Penelope to one of the suitors, but actually to trap all the suitors in his home. These are not just set-pieces used for plot purposes, however; the suitors in Odysseus' home while away the years by having contests of strength and agility virtually every day. In the example of Martin Riggs, the competition is somewhat different. While there are no athletic events in his story, he and his partner, Det. Murtaugh, go back and forth about the relative effects of aging on both of them, and they badger each other in a semi-humorous fashion about which one of them has better aim with a gun, can run faster to catch a criminal, and so on. Each of the movies in the series finds it climax in a hand-to-hand combat scene, using the competitiveness to build suspense within the audience. This idea of competition also appears in the 1959 classic Ben-Hur, where Judah and Messala engage in a friendly spear-tossing contest, aiming at a point where two wooden beams meet in the ceiling.2 Honor, and its attendant condition, fame, are also important to heroes across time. In Greek culture, the winner of a competition would receive "public acknowledgment of his superioritymarked by material tributes and gifts."3 This could take the form of gifts of land, sitting in honored seats, being given the best cuts of meat at feasts, among other honors. The central conflict between Achilles and Agamemnon at the beginning of Iliad is related to the king's prerogative to select the booty from a particular battle. At first, Agamemnon does not want to give back the Chryseis, the priest's daughter that he brought back from their previous war. Once Apollo's command becomes clear, however, Agamemnon gives her back, but only after taking Achilles' new prize, Briseis, from his tent. Achilles' anger over this lack of respect keeps him from fighting with the rest of the Greeks against Troy until Patroklos dons Achilles' armor and is slain in battle, and so the importance of honor and respe ct to the

Effects Of Good Oral Hygiene Health And Social Care Essay

Effects Of Good Oral Hygiene Health And Social Care Essay This paper aims to review the literature surrounding the chosen intervention of oral hygiene. Specifically the effects of good oral hygiene of ventilated patients in a critical care environment. The intervention was selected after the author completed an 8 week placement in an ICU department and to improve evidence-based practice. To retain anonymity the name of the hospital will not be disclosed this complies with the NMC code of professional conduct (2008). It was based on an Intensive Care Unit (ICU) that specialized in the care of level 2 and 3 patients with neurological problems. The majority of the patients on this unit were on advanced respiratory support such as ventilators as well as having with support other vital organ systems. It was noted by the author during the placement that there was a high incidence chest infections. This may have been related to the patients oral hygiene despite the unit adhering to a strict cleansing regime and trust policy/protocols. Firstly, the department adhered to the current recommendations outlined by National Institute for Clinical Excellence (NICE, 2008). NICE states that to reduce the risk of pneumonia in patients on a ventilator patients should be in a semi upright position. Also that some sort of antiseptic is used within the mouth care routine for the patient. These are very vague guidelines and the writer feels further investigation is needed to claify what is best standard practice for mouth care. Intensive care patients have complex oral care needs, inadequate oral care can predispose ICU patients to nosocomial infections such as pneumonia (Ruffell and Admcova, 2008). Ventilator Associated Pneumonia (VAP) is defined as a nosocomical pneumonia that develops in a patient who has been on mechanical ventilary support (intubated) for 48 hour or more (Hutchins et el, 2009), it is a recognised problem in intubated patients, as well as a important cause of morbidity and mortality. In European Prevalence of Infection in ICU study (Vincent et al, 1995) VAP was the most frequent infection accouting for 45% of all infections in ICUs Recent evidence indicates the colonization of the mouth with respiratory pathogens may contribute to VAP. VAP has been associated with increase morbidity, higher mortality rates, increased healthcare cost and longer hospital stays(Hutchins et el,2009).VAP is the leading source of death due to nosocomicalinfection in ICUs (Berry, 2007) Upon reflection, it was observed that there was a high prevalence of VAP on the ward despite the use of high impact interventions such as ventilator care bundles prescribed on the ward. (Saving Lives, 2007) The Health Act 2006 Code of Practice also states that the NHS organisations must audit key policy and procedures for infection control.This included brushing with toothpaste and a small toothbrush, chlorhexidine rinses, suctioning, checking cuff inflation, humidification of and a semi recumbarant positioning. This underpins the rational for selecting the nursing intervention of oral mouth care in VAP prevention. The author felt by reviewing the relevant literature surround the use over mouth care products and associated research the extent to which current literature support or question current evidence based guidelines, could anything else be done to prevent all these infections. Gash defined a literature review as a systematic and thorough search of all types of published literature in order to identify as many items as possible that are relevant to a particular topic (Gash, 2000). Due to the time constraint and the limited number of words allowed the search has been specifically narrowed down and utilised the appropriate and relevant literature. The key words used in the search were oral hygiene and intensive care, with the variants of oral decontamination, mouth care, intubated and mechanically ventilated. The research strategies for selecting literature to review for this paper involved the following databases where searched using EBSCO CINAHL, OVID MEDLINE, Cochrane Library search engines this returned 10224 hits, The search was then narrowed through filtering to only include the core clinical journals or academic papers. The inclusion criteria included research studies and reviews which focused on the oral hygiene in a intensive care setting, articles in this review where published in the last 10 years, focused on adults and written or translated into English. This produced 123 papers, with a search manually finding only 9 that where relevant and will be discussed below. Oral Hygiene effective removal of plaque and debris to ensure the structures and tissues of the mouth are kept in a healthy condition (DOH, 2001). Effective oral health care makes an important contribution to peoples physical, psychological and social well being (Major, 2005). Maintaining oral health in the critically ill patient is imperative in reducing the risk of nosocomial infections and improving patient comfort and discharge outcomes. Critically ill patients are at great risk for poor oral health as many are elderly, undernourished, dehydrated, immunosuppressed, have a smoking or alcohol history, are intubated or on high-flow oxygen, and are unable to mechanically remove dental plaque.(AUS, 2003). Mircoaspiration may occur in patients with a depressed conscience level and reduced cough effort ability, or with a ill fitting or a partially deflated fitting cuff around the endotracheal tube. Critically ill patients lack of spontaneous movement of the tongue movement of the tongue and jaw, infrequent swallowing, and ability to brush teeth because of ventilation equipment as early as 24 hours after ICU admission. (2) Having read through all the research it is evident that studies are contradictory. For example Hutchins (2009) believes the gold standard of oral hygiene is suctioned toothbrushes every four hours followed by Chlorhexidine mouth wash. This reduced VAP by 90% in their study over three years, however can this study be valid as there was no control group or randomization. Furthermore, is research completed in America transferable to the UK. This study was not designed as a RCT but rather as a quality improvement initiative. There was also no numbers of the study size only that all patients ventilated where included over a period of time. Therefore, it could be argued that this study required a sample to measure findings, also completed in America where they have a different a private health care structure and high budgets and funding. Hutchins states the oral hygiene should be completed every 4 hours but The Essence of Care (2001) document emphasises the importance of assessing individu als, in relation to how their oral hygiene can be maintained with its best practice bench mark: All patients/clients are assessed to identify the advice and/or care required to maintain and promote their individual oral hygiene (DOH, 2001). So to do Mouth care on a patient every 4 hours when it needs to be done every hour is unethical, And if the patient only needs mouth care twice a day and your completing every 4 hours this is a waste of nursing time. Maintaining patient safety when administrating mouth care so not to dislodge the endotractcal tube, failing to remove all the toothpaste and mouth wash, putting the patient at risk of aspiration, are all expressed concerns by nurses as concerns when doing mouth care. These reasons as well as patient comfort all influence the nurse to the frequency of mouth care (Berry and Davidson, 2006). Unfortunately, emphasis on the provision of oral care hygiene is allocated as a low priority in nursing duties and student teaching(Berry and Davidson, 2006) although considered to be a basic nursing practice it is relegated to the bottom of the list of duties when caring for a complex intensive care patient. A paper written in 2003 found that Reinforcing proper oral care in education programmes, de-sensitizing nurses to the often-perceived unpleasantness of cleaning oral cavities, and working with hospital managers to allow sufficient time to attend to oral care are recommended.(Furr et el, 2004) Nurse education in oral health practice has remained relatively unchanged for 120 years, and qualified staff lack of adequate knowledge of oral health. In a systematic review (Berry, 20?) sites that nurses in the absence of evidence based guidelines to direct best practice, perform oral hygiene according to individual preferences and historical patterns. These are normally a combination of product availability and nurses previous experience. But the NMC The Code Standards of Conduct, Performance and Ethics (NMC 2008): You must deliver care based on the best available evidence of best practice., although nurses are unclear about what is the best practice, there are many unclear studies and vague guidelines when it comes to Oral hygiene.. The benefits of oral decontamination in reducing VAP have been reviewed in a recent meta-analysis published by the British Journal of Nursing (BJN) This is a peer reviewed journal meaning that to publish within it, others of the same standing have read and agreed with its findings (LoBiondo and Wood, 2002). Toothbrushes/ Mouth swobs The use of the toothbrush in the mechanical removal of plaque, even in the intubated patient, has been proven to be superior to the swab,(AUS)(10) although electric toothbrushes are preferable, their cost, size and the potential for cross-infection limits their use AUS, (2003). Hutchins et al, (2009) research an icu where they had a ventilator bundle that included the use of suction tooth brushes. Swob sticks have been reported as ineffective in removing debris between the teeth and gum borders (Berry at el, 2007) although it was suggested that the use of foam swabs soaked in Chlorhexidine if a toothbrush is considered inappropriate. Although some research shows that mouth swobs should never be used due to them falling apart in the mouth (?)studies indicate that swabbing is the preferred method of oral care in the ICU (Furr et el, 2004) Tooth brushing with a child sized brush is superior to form swobs in removing dental plaque and bacteria in nurse administered oral care (Furr et el, 2004) Mouth wash Although few have been tested in the critical care population, the mouth care rises include chlorhexidine, sodium bicarbonate, hydrogen peroxide and potassium permanganate In a study conducted by Chan (Chan et el,) published in 2007 they found that the oral decontamination of vented patients using antiseptics is associated with a lower risk of VAP(Chan et el, 2007) but they did not reduce mortality or duration of mechanical ventilation or stay in hospital. Although in (Panchabhai et el, 2009) found that use of chlorhexidine did not reduce the amount of VAP compared to the control group, although both groups had reduced numbers of infection, but it did reduce the length of ICU stay. This may have been because they used potassium permanganate as a control rather than a placebo, also when the study was in progress periodic briefing of ICU nurses regarding the importance of mouth care and regular supervision and auditing where done so may have contributed to the decrease of VAP and length of stay. Chlorhexidine is the most investigated and recommended oral care product for preventing VAP.(Senol et el, 2007), although not all studies have found this. There have been reported cases of allergic reactions to Chlorhexidine. (?) Chlorhexidine may also cause brown discolouration to the teeth. (?) . Other ways of helping reduce are To reduce the incidence of VAP incline the head up to 35 percent, interruptions to sedation and the use of subglottic suctioning of secretions. Patients are also but on Tazocine Senol et el (2007) describes that an organised approach to VAP prevention can reduce the rate of VAP. A ventilator bundle is a group of interventions for the intubated patient found to be effective in the reduction rate of VAP. This included elevating the head, sedation vacations, prophylaxis for peptic ulcers and DVT thrombosis. At present there is a review in China underway that is look at Oral hygiene care for critically ill patients to prevent ventilator associated pneumonia, for the Cochrane library. Unfortunately at the time of writing this hasnt come to print (Shi et el, 2010) Berry et el (2007) systematic review concluded need more research Conclusion As indicated in (Marra et el, 2009) to control VAP in the ICU, it is not sufficient to implement 1 measure, or even an ventilator bundle, but rather it requires a culture change involving the entire ICU team. The writer feels that rather than just good oral hygiene to prevent VAP, The ventilator bundle seems to have good results. Education for all ICU nurses, prescribed mouth care products, and valid and reliable assessment tools are needed. The Writer feels that the reading and the literature search have extended their understanding of the key concepts, theories and methodologies surrounding oral decontamination, they have an increased awareness and knowledge and understanding of mouth care and are in a better position to make an informed choice about what practice to use.

Franklin D. Roosevelt and his Presidency Essay -- President Franklin D

Franklin D. Roosevelt and his Presidency Assuming the Presidency at the depth of the Great Depression, Franklin D. Roosevelt helped the American people regain faith in themselves. He brought hope as he promised prompt, vigorous action, and asserted in his Inaugural Address, "the only thing we have to fear is fear itself." Despite an attack of poliomyelitis, which paralyzed his legs in 1921, he was a charismatic optimist whose confidence helped sustain the American people during the strains of economic crisis and world war. "I pledge you, I pledge myself, to a new deal for the American people," said Franklin Roosevelt. With that he was elected President in November 1932, to the first of four terms. By March there were 13,000,000 unemployed, and almost every bank was closed. In his first "hundred days," he proposed, and Congress enacted, a sweeping program to bring recovery to business and agriculture, relief to the unemployed and to those in danger of losing farms and homes, and reform, especially through the establishment of the Tennessee Valley Authority. The most important reform was the Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA), instituted in 1933. This public corporation built multipurpose dams to control floods and generate cheap hydroelectric power. It manufactured fertilizer, fostered soil conservation, and cooperated with local agencies in social experiments. The TVA reflected Roosevelt's commitment to resource development and his longstanding mistrust of private utilities. At first, his legislative requests were conservative. He began by securing passage of an emergency banking bill. Instead of nationalizing the banks--as a few reformers wished--it offered aid to private bankers. A few days later the president forced through an Economy Act that cut $400 million from government payments to veterans and $100 million from the salaries of federal employees. This deflationary measure hurt purchasing power. FDR concluded his early program by securing legalization of beer of 3.2% alcoholic content by weight. By the end of 1933, ratification of the 21st Amendment to the U. S. Constitution had ended prohibition altogether. A series of measures took the nation off the gold standard, thereby offering some assistance to debtors and exporters. He also got Congress to appropriate $500 million in federal relief grants to states and local... ...ing the war he relied too heavily on his charm and personality in the conduct of diplomacy. Still, Roosevelt's historical reputation is deservedly high. In attacking the Great Depression he did much to develop a partial welfare state in the United States and to make the federal government an agent of social and economic reform. His administration indirectly encouraged the rise of organized labor and greatly invigorated the Democratic party. His foreign policies, while occasionally devious, were shrewd enough to sustain domestic unity and the allied coalition in World War II. Roosevelt was a president of stature. These early measures displayed Roosevelt's strengths and weaknesses as an economic thinker. On the one hand, he showed that he was flexible, that he would act, and that he would use all his executive powers to secure congressional cooperation. Frequent press conferences, speeches, and fireside chats--and the extraordinary charisma that he displayed on all occasions--instilled a measure of confidence in the people and halted the terrifying slide of 1932 and 1933. These were important achievements that brought him and his party the gratitude of millions of Americans.

The Gathering Text Response Essay example -- essays research papers

Text Response – Good Vs. Evil Good vs. evil is a widely explored theme in Isobelle Carmody's novel 'The Gathering'. It is most evident in the battle between the Chain and the Kraken, however the more sinister, subtler acts of evil occur when he attempts to make each member vulnerable by breaching their weaknesses. While the physical examples such as the final battle, the murder of The Tod and the violent acts by Buddha and his gang could certainly be classified as evil, it is my belief that the brainwashing of the students and the fanatical powers of illusion Mr. Karle wields are more insidious, swiftly inhabiting and manifesting in the minds of people in a way that is more powerful than any outright acts of violence. An example of how the evil within Cheshunt and Mr. Karle are influencing residents to commit heinous acts can be found on page 214 when Buddha murders Nathanial's dog in an attempt to render him susceptible to Mr. Karle's attempts to manipulate him. The Tod was ruthlessly killed by being doused in kerosene and then set alight. Page 214 reads as follows, â€Å"The match landed in his tail and flames swept forward up over him. Devoured him. He arched and coiled, yelping in pain and fright, and then he screamed, a long inhuman howl of agony and terror. For one terrible second, his eyes looked at me from out of the flames, bulging and pleading.† This horrific and terrifying event was interpreted by Nat as punishment due to Lallie's intervention of the night before whe...

Old-Age Pension Reform in China

-aAvailable online at www. sciencedirect. com Journal of Aging Studies 22 (2008) 74 – 87 www. elsevier. com/locate/jaging Old-age pension reform and modernization pathways: Lessons for China from Latin America Esteban Calvo ? , John B. Williamson Department of Sociology and Center for Retirement Research, Boston College, Chestnut Hill, MA 02467 USA Received 31 July 2006; received in revised form 26 January 2007; accepted 26 February 2007Abstract While numerous Western countries first experienced cultural rationalization, next economic modernization, and then faced the challenges of population aging and pension policy reform, both Latin America and China, in contrast, are dealing with these challenges in the context of much less developed economies and stronger traditional cultures. In this article we analyze old-age pension reform efforts in eight Latin American countries that have introduced funded defined contribution schemes with individual accounts.We are searching for ins ights about the potential success of similar reforms being implemented in China. All of these societies are organized primarily around the principles of family, reciprocity, loyalty and poverty. Our analysis suggests that these distinctive characteristics have important implications for the likely success of the reforms currently being implemented in China, particularly in four interrelated areas: coverage, compliance, transparency, and fiscal stability.  © 2007 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved. Keywords: Pension reform; China; Latin America; Social Security; Culture; Economy; Rationalization . Introduction Latin America is a pioneer with respect to the shift from old-age pension schemes based on pay-as-you-go (PAYG) defined benefit models to schemes based all or in part on funded individual accounts. In 1981 Chile became the first nation to make the shift with the introduction of mandatory fully-funded privately managed individual retirement accounts (IRAs). Today there are 12 L atin American countries that have shifted to schemes influenced by the Chilean model (Gill, Packard, & Yermo, 2005; Kritzer, 2005). ? Corresponding author. E-mail addresses: [email  protected] du (E. Calvo), [email  protected] edu (J. B. Williamson). 0890-4065/$ – see front matter  © 2007 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved. doi:10. 1016/j. jaging. 2007. 02. 004 On the opposite side of the earth, China is following a similar path, though the Chinese IRAs are currently publicly managed and remain largely unfunded (Jackson & Howe, 2004). Since 1995 China has introduced a number of reforms, the most important of which were promulgated in 1997 and 2000. By 2025, one quarter of the world's population aged 60 and over will be living in China (United Nations, 2005).For this reason the success or failure of the reform of China's old-age pension system will affect a major proportion of the world's elderly population (Williamson & Shen, 2004). In many respects the reforms in China have not been working out as had been intended. The major problems faced by the old-age pension reform in Latin America appear again in the newly introduced reforms in China. These problems include low coverage and compliance rates, poor transparency, and serious fiscal difficulties. E. Calvo, J. B. Williamson / Journal of Aging Studies 22 (2008) 74–87 5 Our analysis tries to obtain insights about the potential consequences of reforms currently being introduced in China based on evidence from eight Latin American countries – Argentina, Bolivia, Chile, Colombia, El Salvador, Mexico, Peru and Uruguay – that introduced some form of funded IRAs (partial privatization) between 1981 and 1998. Four other countries – Costa Rica, the Dominican Republic, Ecuador, and Nicaragua – are not included because their reforms are so new, because they are not yet fully implemented, or due to the lack of information.Many differences can be found between the Latin Ameri can countries, and perhaps even more between them and China. For example, Latin American countries have undergone a variety of political regimes, but none of them has been close to Chinese communism. Differences acknowledged, our analysis emphasizes the major cultural and economic factors shared by the countries analyzed. We argue that the eight selected Latin American countries and China are strong traditional cultures and low-income economies characterized by the centrality of: (1) the family, (2) reciprocal relationships, (3) rules of loyalty, and (4) poverty.Our analysis highlights the role of these factors in shaping the unfolding of the pension reform process with respect to four areas: (1) coverage, (2) compliance, (3) transparency, and (4) fiscal stability. The role of the cultural and economic factors considered in this article has been largely overlooked in the literature on pension reform. Much of this literature focuses on political factors, such as the welfare state, co mmunism, and the World Bank policies (e. g. Esping-Andersen, 1996; Fox, 1997; Frazier, 2004; Myles & Pierson, 2001).In this article our focus is on Latin America and China, but we find it essential to make some comparisons with the Western European nations. The latter will be characterized as rationalized cultures and affluent economies displaying centrality of: (1) the institutions supporting elderly, (2) individual financial planning, (3) legality, and (4) wealth. Although a detailed analysis of Western European countries is beyond the scope of this paper, the comparison has important advantages.A comparative perspective calls attention to the factors shared by Latin America and China. In addition, the Western European nations constitute a reference point that can be used to provide all observers with a common frame through which to assess the pension reform in Latin America and from which to speculate about some of the challenges China will face in connection with pension changes currently being implemented. But above all, the comparison to Western European nations helps to uncover some of the nderlying assumptions of these pension reforms that do not entirely hold for Latin America and China. In a somewhat oversimplified formulation, these assumptions are: (1) preeminence of formal-institutional support systems of the elderly, (2) emphasis on individual responsibility for financial planning, (3) zealous attachment to the law, and (4) perception of old-age poverty as an isolated problem. Formulated in a more general way, we will argue that the reforms fail to account for some of the major cultural and economic characteristics shared by Latin America and China.Fig. 1 and Table 1 provide a brief summary of a number of key points that we have briefly introduced above, but more importantly they also serve as guide to much of the analysis which follows. 2. Modernization pathways Population aging and with it the associated problems of reforming the old-age pensio n systems are taking place around the world. However, the challenge of pension policy reform is context-specific. In Latin America and China, this challenge is framed in the context of a traditional culture and low income economy.This claim should be understood in relative or comparative terms: Latin America and China contrasted to the Western European nations. In this section we will use the construct â€Å"modernization pathway† to describe broad historical transformations of the culture and the economy that precede the old-age pension reform and are common to a number of countries. We will consider two modernization pathways, one that fits a number of Western European nations and a second which better fits China and Latin America. Both can be viewed as Weberian ideal types (Weber, 1949, 1958).They are not meant to correspond to all of the characteristics of any particular country, but rather to highlight common elements that play an important role in the pension policy ref orm acceptance and effectiveness. The Western Pathway is limited here to the Western European countries, though it may be – carefully – extended to a few Western countries outside Western Europe. Southern European countries (e. g. Spain, Portugal and Italy) are more culturally similar to Latin America and for this reason were excluded from the pathway described here.The United States was also excluded because its exceptionalism adds unnecessary complexity to the typology (Lipset, 1996). However, the United States shares many characteristics of the Western European nations and is also influencing the pension reform in Latin America and China, as proponents of 76 E. Calvo, J. B. Williamson / Journal of Aging Studies 22 (2008) 74–87 Fig. 1. The challenge of population aging for the pension system has come through dissimilar modernization pathways. world system and dependency theories have pointed out repeatedly (Wallerstein, 2004).Culture is one important domain wh ere the Pathway of Latin America and China differs from the Western Pathway (Fig. 1). Latin America and China are both facing the challenge of population aging for their pension systems in the context of much stronger traditional cultures than found in the West. The Western Pathway, in contrast, is characterized by a deeply rationalized culture. According to Max Weber (1968) the process of rationalization tends to foster and to be associated with secularization and the view that everything is explainable by reason, at least in principle (Giddens, 1971; Kalberg, 1994; Lash & Whimster, 1987).In behavioral terms, rationality involves a second meaning: greater reliance on means-ends calculations designed to organize activity so as to more efficiently reach a particular goal. One indicator of the level of rationalization in a society is a strong and uncorrupt formal legal system which fosters a social order based in large measure on laws, not just traditional cultural practices. Fig. 2 s uggests that corruption levels are lower in Western European countries than in China and in most Latin American countries.Although a traditional culture may have a formal legal system, the social order may be less based on these laws than in Western countries (Sandholtz & Taagepera, 2005; Treisman, 2000). In China, for example, if there is a dispute between two families, rather than engage lawyers and courts, people may turn to spirit-mediums, respected in the community, familiarized with the parties involved and local history, and thus qualified to suggest solutions that are acceptable to both sides (Adler, 2002).Such evidence suggests that China and Latin America have not undergone as profound a rationalization process as have the Western European nations. Economy is a second important domain where the Pathway for Latin America and China differs from the Western Pathway (Fig. 1). In contrast to Western countries, Latin America and China are also facing the challenge of rapid popul ation aging before reaching high levels of national income. Despite rapid economic growth since the early 1980s, China is still a poor country.In 2001, more than 16% of the Chinese population was living on less than one dollar per day (World Bank, 2003). In Latin America, one-fifth of the total population lives in extreme poverty and almost half in poverty (ECLAC, 2004). Fig. 3 illustrates the recent trends in Gross Domestic Product (GDP) per capita of the Western Pathway in comparison to the trends for China and Latin America. While this data covers a very recent time period, it is consistent with and lends support to the Weberian idea that in Western Europe the rationalization process is followed by a prosperous capitalist economic development.Summing up, only after becoming rational and affluent societies do the Western countries start facing the challenge of a rapid population aging and the associated need for pension system reform. Clearly this is not the case of Latin America and China, which have Table 1 Modernization pathways and areas of challenge for old-age pension system reform China and Latin America1 Family (xiao) Reciprocity (chung) Loyalty (zhong) Poverty 1 Western Countries Institutions Individual Planning Legality Wealth Old-age pension reform Coverage Compliance Transparency Fiscal stabilityThe pinyin system of Romanization has been used for Chinese terms for Confucian virtues. E. Calvo, J. B. Williamson / Journal of Aging Studies 22 (2008) 74–87 77 Fig. 2. Western countries are perceived as less corrupt than China and Latin America (Transparency International, 2005). much stronger traditional cultures and have not yet reached the Western European level of economic development (Fig. 1). However, these distinctive characteristics have received little attention in the design of pension reforms or in efforts to evaluate the efficacy of these reforms in Latin America and China (Gill et al. 2005; Holzmann & Hinz, 2005; Mesa-Lago, 2005; Wil liamson & Deitelbaum, 2005; World Bank, 1994, 1997). Many have argued that religion is one of the most important factors explaining the differences between Western Europe and China and Latin America (Cousino 1990; Cousino & Valenzuela, 1994; Morande, 1984; Weber , 1951, 1963, 2002). Chinese Confucianism and Latin American Marianism – the Catholic adoration of the Virgin Mary – have been said to lack the elements central to the Protestant ethic that would bring about an early and profound rationalization process and capitalist development.Max Weber posed the question: why did the modern West develop the way it did, and why did China not develop at the same time and in the same way as the West? He focused on a number of factors that distinguish European modernization from that of China arguing, for Fig. 3. The western pathway is characterized by wealth (International Monetary Fund (IMF), 2005). 78 E. Calvo, J. B. Williamson / Journal of Aging Studies 22 (2008) 74– 87 example, that Western European countries were characterized by the separation of the productive enterprise from the household, while China was organized on the basis of extended kinship clans (Weber, 1961).But the most important difference Weber (1951, 1963, 2002) highlights is that between European Protestantism and Chinese Confucianism. Protestantism is based on an ethic that prompts an active attitude to change the world and places an emphasis on the individual. Confucianism is an ethic of adjustment to the world; it accepts things as they are and promotes a contemplative, mystical and passive attitude that tends to prolong ancient traditions. In this sense, Confucianism lacks the active tension that exists between Protestant religion and the world.That is, it lacked a â€Å"mentality† or â€Å"moral energy† suited for the early emergence of modern capitalism and a rationalized social order. Similarly to Weber's comparison of Confucianism to Protestantism, Latin American Sociologists contrast Marianism with Protestantism (Cousino, 1990; Cousino & Valenzuela, 1994; Morande, 1984). The â€Å"ethic† of Marianism is that of grace and mercy rather than individual merit and responsibility. Mary is viewed as a mother-like figure with compassionate attitude towards offenders and willingness to grant favors. She recompenses devotion with clemency and unmerited divine concessions.Accordingly, Marianism – as is the case with Confucianism – lacks the â€Å"moral energy† that would bring about a profound rationalization process and early capitalist development. Note that this is an historical argument. Hence, we are not arguing that China or Latin America can not develop (or will not at some point in the future) a rationalized culture or modern capitalism; rather, we are arguing that they did not do so before and in the same way as the West. Actually, between the 1960s and 1980s, Latin America and China were actively trying t o rationalize their cultures, though the results of these efforts were modest.The rationalization efforts in China and Latin America were driven by the desire to emulate the Western countries and not the same differentiated culture that drove the rationalization process in Western Europe. We will use the term â€Å"differentiated culture† to refer to a culture in which people are confronted with conflicting world views (e. g. , Protestant vs. Catholic) and contrast it with a traditional culture in which everyone shares basically the same world views and assumptions.A differentiated culture was found on Western Europe during the sixteenth century, when the Protestant Reformation and related religious controversies split the traditional Catholic unity of the region. A differ- entiated culture does not provide an adequate level of social integration and requires the creation of rational arrangements to assure social order (Cousino & Valenzuela, 1994). In Latin America and China the rationalization effort took place in the context of a less differentiated culture and as a result the rationalization process has been less pervasive in these regions than in West.For example, during the Cultural Revolution (1966– 1976) the traditional culture was harshly attacked in China: temples were destroyed and Confucianism was declared an outdated ideology and popular religion mere superstition. However, starting with the 1980s there is widespread evidence of a strong revival of traditional religious practices and beliefs (Adler 2002; Lagerwey, 2004; Overmyer, 2003). Temples are being re-built and devotion to local deities continues to thrive. Festivals, rituals, dances, processions, communication with supernatural beings, fengshui, and popular medicine are now part of ordinary life for any Chinese people. Altars for ancestors and patron deities are found in many households. Confucianism remains at the core of the cultural unity of China, albeit more as an ethical philosophy or system of thought than as a formal religion. Similarly, Latin America has not experienced the level of cultural differentiation found in Western Europe. Latin American Sociologists argue that Latin American culture remains integrated by the values and norms underlying â€Å"Marianism† (Cousino, 1990; Cousino & Valenzuela, 1994; Morande, 1984).Just to remind, these claims should be understood in comparative terms: Latin America and China are strong traditional cultures relative to the West. It is also important to note that numerous factors other than religion may have influenced the modernization pathways. However, describing these factors goes beyond the scope of this article. The point that we want to stress here is the disparity between the modernization pathways of China and Latin America as opposed to Western Europe.To summarize, for the countries under consideration there is a difference in the type of cultural and economic transformations that have preced ed the challenge of rapid population aging and the associated need for pension reform. There has also been a difference in the timing of these processes. While numerous Western countries first experienced cultural rationalization, next economic modernization, and then faced the challenges of population aging and pension policy reform, both Latin America and China are dealing with these challenges in the context of much less developed economies and stronger traditional cultures (Fig. ). E. Calvo, J. B. Williamson / Journal of Aging Studies 22 (2008) 74–87 79 3. Pension reform in low-income traditional societies Latin America and China both have traditional cultures and low-income economies. As defined here, a â€Å"traditional culture† is organized around three principles: family, reciprocity, and loyalty. In comparison, a â€Å"rationalized culture† is organized around institutions, planning, and legality. In this case the traditional cultures are also low-incom e economies characterized by poverty while the rationalized cultures are developed economies characterized by ealth (Table 1). Note that the separation of traditional and rational does not imply that traditional cultures are irrational. Conflicting principles can coexist in the same culture, but typically one has preeminence over the other. Drawing evidence from Latin America, in this section we argue that the modernization pathway preceding the aging challenge in China will shape the challenge to the old-age pension system reform in four interrelated areas: coverage, compliance, transparency, and fiscal stability (Table 1).Coverage: old-age pension institutions and family The effects of the pension reform on coverage rates in Latin America have been largely discussed in previous literature (Arenas de Mesa, 2000; ECLAC, 2006; Gill et al. , 2005; Jimenez & Cuadros, 2003; Mesa-Lago, 2004; Packard, 2002). There is not much agreement about what measure of coverage should be used. Howeve r, regardless of the indicator used, for most of the countries analyzed a substantial fraction of the popula- tion is left without coverage (Table 2).For a detailed discussion of the reason for the discrepancies between these various indicators see Rofman (2005). As with Latin America, a large fraction of the Chinese population is left without coverage. About two-thirds of Chinese workers live in rural areas and in those areas only about 11% of these workers are covered by a formal-institutional pension system. Coverage goes up to 55% of the workforce in urban areas, although even this level of coverage is insufficient by Western standards. Overall, three out of four Chinese workers have no pension coverage at all (Jackson & Howe 2004).It is generally agreed by most Chinese policymakers that it is not feasible at this point in time to extend coverage by the formal-institutional old-age pension institutions to the vast Chinese rural population, despite the high level of rural old-age poverty (Williamson & Shen, 2004). Based on analogous pension reform efforts in a number of Latin American countries, it does not seem likely that current reform efforts in China are going to substantially increase coverage any time soon (Arenas de Mesa, 2000; ECLAC, 2006; Gill et al. 2005; Jimenez & Cuadros, 2003; Mesa-Lago, 2004; Packard, 2002). Today most Chinese rely heavily on family networks for support. According to the 2000 census data, about two-thirds of those age 65 and over live with their children (Table 3). This tendency is particularly strong for elderly women living in rural areas. The lack of formal-institutional pension coverage for most elderly Chinese and the evidence from Latin America suggesting that coverage may not substantially increase any time soon, leads us to the conclusion that in ChinaTable 2 In Latin America pension system reform has left a substantial fraction of the population without coverage a Country Coverage before the reform Coverage after the reform Contributors/economically active population (year) Chile Argentina Mexico Uruguay Colombia Peru El Salvador Bolivia a b Other indicators of coverage after the reform Contributors/economically Contributors/employed Contributors/wageBenficiaries/population active population b (2002) persons b (2000–2003) earners b (2000–2003) age 65+ c (2000–2003) 0. 58 0. 26 0. 33 0. 45 0. 18 0. 12 0. 22 0. 11 0. 63 0. 40 d 0. 39 0. 65 d – 0. 14 0. 32 0. 11 0. 77 0. 55 d 0. 2 0. 79 d – 0. 31 0. 53 0. 29 0. 64 0. 68 d 0. 19 0. 87 d 0. 19 0. 24 0. 15 0. 15 0. 64 (1980) 0. 50 (1994) 0. 37 (1997) 0. 32 (1997) 0. 32 (1993) 0. 31 (1993) 0. 26 (1996) 0. 12 (1996) Adapted from AIOS, 2005; Mesa-Lago, 2005; and Rofman, 2005. These measurements could overestimate coverage for workers doing sporadic contributions, or underestimate coverage for workers not doing contributions but covered by non-contributory pensions. c This measurement could underestimate coverage for sp ouses of beneficiaries, for individuals who continue working and delayed the benefits, and individuals receiving non-contributive benefits. Information for urban areas. 80 E. Calvo, J. B. Williamson / Journal of Aging Studies 22 (2008) 74–87 Table 3 The majority of Chinese elders live with their children1 Rural Urban Rural-urban combined Males Living alone 8. 7 7. 7 8. 4 With spouse only 26. 3 33. 7 28. 8 With spouse and other, not with children 0. 7 0. 8 0. 7 With spouse and children 36. 5 39. 0 37. 4 With children, not with spouse 25. 6 16. 8 22. 6 With others, not with spouse and 1. 9 1. 3 1. 7 children Institution 0. 3 0. 7 0. 4 Grand total 100. 0 100. 0 100. 0 Subtotal of living with spouse 63. 73. 5 66. 9 Subtotal of living with children 62. 1 55. 8 59. 9 Females Living alone 9. 8 12. 4 10. 7 With spouse only 17. 9 21. 3 19. 1 With spouse and other, not with children 0. 3 0. 6 0. 4 With spouse and children 22. 8 21. 7 22. 4 With children, not with spouse 48. 1 42. 6 46. 2 With others, not with spouse and 0. 9 1. 0 0. 9 children Institution 0. 2 0. 4 0. 3 Grand total 100. 0 100. 0 100. 0 Subtotal of living with spouse 41. 0 43. 6 41. 9 Subtotal of living with children 70. 9 64. 4 68. 7 1 of the family in the Latin American culture.There is no reason to expect a different outcome in China. The Confucian ethic of filial piety (xiao) involves respect, obedience, gratitude and the obligation to reciprocate for parents having given us life and, in comparison to the Western countries, this ethic remains very strong in China (Gu & Liang, 2000; Sung, 2000). It has been motivating children to take care of their elderly parents for centuries and will probably continue to play a role for care for the elderly long into the future (Zeng & Wang, 2003), though increasingly in combination with formal old-age pension institutions.The assumption made by some analysts that the family support system is going to break down places the Chinese case into a conceptual fram ework better suited to the Western Pathway. But that framework overlooks the fact that China continues to be a traditional culture and it limits policymakers to considering individualized ways to support retirees, relegating the family network of support to a secondary role in the policy debate about the reform. Compliance: individual financial planning and reciprocity Closely related to the coverage problem are low compliance rates and low contribution densities.One goal of the pension reform in Latin America has been to improve incentives for workers to participate in the system and to increase personal contributions to their funded accounts. A strengthened â€Å"equivalence principle† (a linkage between contributions and pension benefits) was expected to get workers to view their contributions as investments or savings rather than as a tax. This in turn was expected to increase the incentive for participating and contributing to the system (World Bank, 1994).However, the e vidence from Latin American does not point to any such trend (Gill et al. , 2005; Jimenez & Cuadros, 2003; Mesa-Lago, 2004; Packard, 2002; Rofman, 2005). Evidence presented in Table 4 shows that compliance rates have actually decreased in Latin America suggesting that IRAs are not having the expected impact on the incentive to contribute. It is generally agreed both in Latin America and in China that some segments of the population are particularly reluctant to contribute.For example, workers in rural areas, workers in the informal sector of the economy, and low-wage workers choose savings options other than IRAs, such as housing and the education of their children (ECLAC, 2006; Gill et al. , 2005; Kritzer, 2000; Mesa-Lago, 2004; Packard, 2001; Rofman, 2005). Living arrangements for Chinese population aged 65 and over, rural urban comparison, year 2000. Adapted from Zeng & Wang, 2003. family support is likely to remain the primary source of old-age security during the foreseeable fu ture, at least in rural areas, where there is virtually no pension coverage.On the other hand, the projected demographic change for China gives us reason to questions the efficacy of the traditional family support system for meeting the economic needs of tomorrow's Chinese elderly (Gubhaju & Moriki-Durand, 2003; Zeng & Wang, 2003). In 1970, the Chinese elderly were outnumbered by children six to one, but by 2040 there will be two elderly people for every child (UN 2003). This projected demographic change will place great strain in the traditional family support system and suggests that the need for old-age pensions is going to be increasing.It is clear that the Chinese elderly will not be able to rely solely on family arrangements (Friedman, James, Kane, & Queisser, 1996; World Bank, 1997). Nonetheless, it is also true that family support networks will continue to play a very important role for many of the elderly. Examination of recent pension reform efforts in Latin America sugges t that the family performs a crucial function as a source of support and protection for the elderly, given the limited coverage of the pension system in the region (ECLAC, 2004) and the centrality E.Calvo, J. B. Williamson / Journal of Aging Studies 22 (2008) 74–87 Table 4 Compliance rates have declined in Latin America a Country Argentina Bolivia Chile Colombia b El Salvalor Mexico c Peru Uruguay 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 48. 9 – 52. 8 – 67. 2 63. 4 45. 6 67. 4 44. 3 – 53. 4 51. 6 63. 8 60. 2 45. 7 58. 7 39. 1 – 50. 9 48. 5 53. 5 57. 9 41. 7 53. 9 29. 0 47. 0 53. 7 48. 7 53. 2 44. 7 41. 2 53. 2 33. 2 46. 9 51. 0 47. 6 47. 6 41. 7 39. 4 45. 1 35. 2 39. 0 51. 9 48. 7 46. 3 39. 3 41. 9 52. 7 35. 4 44. 9 50. 4 49. 5 41. 9 38. 39. 9 52. 5 40. 3 47. 5 51. 2 50. 6 39. 5 37. 6 36. 2 55. 7 81 a Percentage of affiliates who contributed in the past month to IRAs, December 1998–2005. Source: Mesa-Lago, 2005; and AIOS, 2005. b In 1993†“2003 contributor was an affiliate who had at least one contribution in the last six months. c In 1993–2003 contributor was an affiliate who had at least one contribution in the past two months. Why might these groups avoid contributions to a reformed old-age pension system if it is clearly strengthened with respect to the equivalence principle?We will focus on explanations connected to the modernization pathway preceding the reform. One potential explanation is that individuals are â€Å"irrational†; not contributing to the IRA reveals a myopic behavior or short planning horizon (Valdes-Prieto, 2002). Here we offer an alternative explanation: the preference for the education of one's children and housing over IRAs is a â€Å"rational† behavior for an individual in a traditional culture and in a low-income economy, where the family is a strong social unit organized around reciprocity and affected by poverty.What is considered rational in Latin America and Chin a may not be considered rational from the perspective of the Western Pathway. Numerous studies in Latin America conclude that contributing to the IRAs is too costly, particularly for low-income workers who struggle to meet immediate basic needs for survival and face the pressing consumption needs of their families (Barr & Packard, 2000; Gill et al. , 2005; Jimenez & Cuadros, 2003; Kritzer, 2000; Mesa-Lago, 2004; Packard, 2002). In Fig. 4 we present aggregate data that points to a similar trend.We see that compliance rates tend to increase as GDP per capita increases, despite evidence of some variation between nations in similar GDP per capita ranges (e. g. Mexico versus Uruguay). At the cultural level, contributing to an IRA could disrupt the cycle of reciprocity inside a family. By investing in housing and childhood education, wealth is shared and transferred among generations in a permanent cycle of giving, receiving, and returning (Bataille, 1998; Mauss, 1967), a dynamic that ass ures family support at older ages.Summing up, in a lowincome economy and a culture where reciprocity has primacy over individual financial planning, a strengthened equivalence principle is likely to have little impact on a worker's propensity to contribute to the system. As with Latin-Americans, the Chinese are severely affected by poverty and tend to show a lack of enthusiasm for IRAs (Zhao & Xu, 2002), but support for the principle of reciprocity inside the family (Bengston & Putney, 2000; Gu & Liang, 2000; Sung, 2000). Therefore, it is reasonable to hypothesize that a stronger equivalence principle is an insufficient incentive for Chinese workers to contribute.Two caveats should be mentioned when assessing ways to increase compliance rates in China. First, while the value placed on reciprocity is associated with what we call an â€Å"ethic of family savings† in China, in Latin American it occurs within an â€Å"ethic of ritual spending of wealth† (Cousino, 1990; Cou sino & Valenzuela, 1994; Fig. 4. Coverage is larger in wealthier countries (International Monetary Fund (IMF), 2005; Transparency International, 2005). 82 E. Calvo, J. B. Williamson / Journal of Aging Studies 22 (2008) 74–87 Morande, 1984).In Latin America, reciprocity is extended beyond the family to God and nature. For example, a profuse harvest is comprehended as a gift of nature or a favor from God. The spontaneous reaction of people is to greet the benefactor with sacrifices or to spend part of the wealth received in a celebration. The popular belief is that human efforts cannot succeed without luck or divine support. This belief is confirmed in Latin American semantics, where the concepts â€Å"earning† and â€Å"winning† are indistinct: you win a wage as you win a lottery.This example illustrates Latin Americans' predisposition to spend and share wealth as if it were a prize. Individual financial planning is not based on this type of reasoning where wealt h is often attributed to God or the earth. Such behavior is more typical in cultures that attribute the origin of wealth to human work. In Chinese culture this link seems to be stronger, perhaps because land is more highly regulated and is perceived as a particularly scarce resource.The Chinese more readily save wealth than Latin-Americans, though savings may be for children's prosperity and perpetuating the principle of reciprocity. Even Chinese individuals living in foreign countries, where changes in the family support patterns are more prevalent, tend to sacrifice part of their personal gain for the well-being of their family (Lan, 2002; Wong, Yoo, & Stewart, 2006). The fact that the equivalence principle could be strengthened a lot more in China constitutes a second caveat when assessing ways to increase compliance rates (Dorn, 2004; Zhao & Xu, 2002).China has formally based its old-age pension system reform, at least in part, on funded IRAs; but in actual practice these IRAs a re often closer to the NDC (notional [or unfunded] defined contribution) model than to the funded defined contribution model (Williamson & Deitelbaum, 2005). The NDC model (also referred to as the Non-Financial Defined Contribution model) is explicated in detail elsewhere (Holzmann & Palmer 2006; Williamson, 2004; Williamson & Zheng, 2003).IRAs have been set up and a record is being kept of what has been contributed, but the government routinely diverts money from IRAs to pay pensions to the currently retired. The discrepancy between pension policy as described in government documents and what happens in actual practice, has the unintended effect of contributing to distrust and discouraging both participation and compliance. Fig. 5 suggests that transparency and credibility (high CPI scores) are associated with higher compliance rates.Corruption levels in China are similar to those of Argentina and Peru, and most likely have a negative effect on compliance rates. Transparency: legal ity and loyalty The privatization reforms in Latin America were designed to provide pension systems with a high degree of resistance to political manipulation (World Bank, 1994). However, the economic crisis in Argentina that started in the late 1990s has been attributed in part to the deficit created by the old-age pension reform and poor management of the funds (Bertranou, Rofman, & Grushka, 2003; Matijascic & Kay, 2006; Mesa-Lago, 2004).Argentina deferred its debt by selling bonds to the fund management companies. This risky behavior illustrates that the new funded systems are not immune to political manipulation and that it is important to invest in asset classes other than just government bonds. The Fig. 5. Coverage is larger in countries with better CPI score (less corrupt) (International Monetary Fund (IMF), 2005; Transparency International, 2005). E. Calvo, J. B. Williamson / Journal of Aging Studies 22 (2008) 74–87 83 case of Bolivia is another good example.Loose reg ulations led to fraudulent interpretations of the rules for the transition, contributing to higher than expected costs (Dowers, Fassina, & Pettinato, 2001; Escobar & Nina, 2004; Gill et al. , 2005). On the other hand, Chile's better coverage can be attributed, at least in part, to its lower level of corruption. Fig. 2 shows the disparity in levels of corruption between Chile and other Latin American countries. Chile has a CPI score closer to Belgium and France, while Argentina and Bolivia have the lowest scores.China also has low CPI scores; this may foreshadow problems with corruption in the funded component of the Chinese pension system. As discussed earlier, a strong and clean legal system is an indicator of rationalization. A rationalized set of laws is needed when traditional behaviors are unable to provide sufficient social order. In traditional cultures, â€Å"loyalty† upholds order to a greater extent than â€Å"legality† and leads people to provide favors and preferential treatment to friends or relatives.When a morality based on personal relationships and favors is extended to public institutions, such as the pension system, corruption is a high risk (corruption is a judgment made from the reference point of legality). Accordingly, in a traditional culture, the shift from family support to the support of a formal-institutional pension system – either with or without IRAs – is prone to corruption. China is particularly vulnerable to corruption for several reasons (Sandholtz Taagepera, 2005).First, loyalty (zhong) is a longstanding Confucian virtue that permeates all social relationships (Adler, 2002). Second, mechanisms that facilitate regulation and supervision of the pension system have been slow to emerge (Holzmann & Hinz, 2005). Third, funds are typically invested with low public transparency in a context where there is too much money for too few opportunities (Holzmann & Hinz, 2005; Williamson & Shen, 2004). Fourth, th e money is collected, administered, and owned by the government (Dorn, 2004; Jackson & Howe, 2004; Holzmann & Hinz, 2005).Consequently, separating these roles, diversifying the investment opportunities, carefully establishing and legitimating the regulatory system, creating technical organizations of supervision, and enabling greater public access to information about fund management are all much needed steps in Chinese pension reform. Fiscal stability: economic growth and poverty reduction One of the major political selling points for the partial privatization of pension schemes has been governments' difficulty with financing the increasing pension burden associated with prior PAYG defined benefit schemes.Therefore, the fiscal stability of the new systems is fundamental to the credibility of the reforms (Dowers et al. , 2001; Gill et al. , 2005). In Latin America the fiscal burden has remained substantial, though it may have been even higher, particularly in future decades, without recent reforms. The shift to partial privatization typically calls for some form of â€Å"double payments†: payments associated to the new system, but also payments recognizing benefits and contributions for those participating in the old system (Jimenez & Cuadros, 2003; Mesa-Lago, 2000).The transition costs associated with these reforms have typically turned out to be much larger and are currently projected to last much longer than had originally been expected. Permanent costs may also increase: low rates of compliance could force the government to aid more people than initially anticipated through the minimum pension guarantee and social assistance pensions. For the region as a whole the cost of social security and social assistance taken together increased from 5. 2% of the GDP in 1990–1991 to 7. % in 2002–2003 (ECLAC, 2006). These costs are likely to be high in China as well. Fiscal difficulties have been a problem affecting the Chinese old-age pension syst em since the 1980s (Jackson & Howe, 2004; Whiteford, 2003; Williamson & Deitelbaum, 2005). Previously, State-Owned-Enterprises (SOEs) were responsible for providing pensions to their retired employees. In the 1980s the finances of the SOEs became deeply strained by the transition to a market economy and the governments' decision to stop subsidizing them.Without government support and with a declining number of workers, SOEs faced serious difficulties in providing pensions for their former workers. In response to this problem, the Chinese government has called for municipal pooling of pension obligations and contributions. This reform largely shifted the financial crisis from SOEs to the municipalities. With the 1997 reforms, the pension burden, previously shifted from the SOEs to the municipalities, was in part returned to the central government.China's long history of fiscal problems in its pension system and the evidence of pervasive fiscal problems associated with the new privati zation related reforms in Latin America suggest that the pension related fiscal burden will continue to be a major challenge for pension reformers in China. China's weak fiscal situation in the years preceding recent reforms raises concerns about how the nation will deal with the impending cost of the transition. Fig. 6 illustrates the fiscal situation of Chile, Argentina, and 84 E. Calvo, J. B. Williamson / Journal of Aging Studies 22 (2008) 74–87 Fig. 6.The fiscal strength prior to the reform is key to overstep its costs. China in the years preceding the privatization related reforms. Argentina dramatically underestimated the cost of the transition, and during its recent economic crisis paid a heavy price for this mistake. In Chile the transition cost was also very high (about 5. 7% of annual GDP during the 1980s and 1990s), but the general fiscal surplus was very helpful in dealing with this burden (Gill et al. , 2005; Mesa-Lago, 2000). Fig. 6 shows that China is in a comp aratively weak position to handle the fiscal pressures of the reform.Finding a way to finance the pension system is a problem for most countries around the world, but this problem becomes particularly acute for low-income countries, such as China and those in Latin America. However, there is an important difference between China and Latin America. The Chinese government has called for a new pension system that is based in part on funded IRAs, but due to lack of alternative ways to raise the money needed to pay promised pensions to those who are currently retired, these â€Å"funded† accounts are today for the most part unfunded.The money has been used, typically by the local government to pay pensions to those who are already retired, leaving little more than electronic records in the accounts of individual workers specifying that they have made specific â€Å"contributions† to their account and the level of the unfunded balances in those accounts. In practice, China i s using a variant of â€Å"notional accounts† as a financing strategy for the pension system (Williamson, 2004; Williamson & Shen, 2004; Williamson & Zheng, 2003).The discrepancy between the formal structure of the program and what is actually going on must be contributing to mistrust of the government and to a lack of confidence in the pension system. It must also be reducing the incentive to contribute and increasing the incentive to evade paying into the scheme. However, there are advantages to the NDC model when properly designed as the model does help to spread the transition costs over more age cohorts and it does tend to reduce administrative costs.Low-income countries face difficulties as they try to balance the aims of fostering economic growth and poverty reduction as they reform their pension schemes. It is generally assumed that the main objective for an old-age pension system is to provide at least some financial security for the elderly. In those countries with many elderly in or at risk of poverty, the need for income redistribution becomes particularly salient. Minimum and non-contributive pensions can be used to help with redistribution and poverty reduction, but they do not maximize the equivalence principle and do increase the cost of the system (Gill et al. 2005; Holzmann & Hinz, 2005; Jimenez & Cuadros, 2003; Johnson & Williamson, 2006; Matijascic & Kay, 2006; Mesa-Lago, 2004). 4. Conclusion While numerous Western countries first experienced cultural rationalization, then economic modernization, and after that faced the challenges of population aging, both Latin America and China are dealing with pension system reforms in the context of much stronger traditional cultures and less developed economies (Fig. 1).The analysis presented in this article suggests that these distinctive characteristics have shaped the consequences of the reforms in Latin America and will likely do so in China. Specific challenges arise in the context of a tr aditional culture and a low-income economy where society is organized around the principles of family, reciprocity, loyalty, and poverty (Table 1). One of the most predictable challenges will be the coverage problem. Most Chinese elderly are not covered by formal old-age pension E. Calvo, J. B.Williamson / Journal of Aging Studies 22 (2008) 74–87 85 institutions and currently rely only on traditional family support. There is no evidence from the Latin American countries that have introduced pension reforms calling for partial privatization suggesting that coverage for the Chinese system is likely to approach universality in the foreseeable future. Therefore, the family unit, the traditional source of well-being at older ages, seems likely to continue being the major pillar of the old-age security, particularly in rural areas.However, in the decades ahead the Chinese elderly will with increasing frequency find that their families are not in a position to provide the needed sup port. The need for formalinstitutional pension coverage will be increasing rapidly in the years ahead. A key question will be whether the recent reforms calling for partial privatization will in the end undermine or strengthen traditional family networks of support and filial piety. Low compliance rates are another major challenge for China. Although incentives to contribute have improved, the current low compliance rates point to a preference for old-age security based on reciprocity (e. . investments on children's education) rather than individual financial planning. Strengthening the equivalence principle that links contributions and benefits could stimulate compliance for some. Nevertheless, those used to living in poverty, particularly in rural areas, may resist efforts to encourage individual financial planning and may prefer to sacrifice part of their modest wealth for the family. It would make sense for policy makers to adjust incentives in such a way as to take into conside ration historical, cultural, and contextual factors.Corruption and lack of transparency aggravate the coverage and compliance problems and constitute yet another challenge for the Chinese reforms. Where loyalty has primacy over legality, corruption and lack of transparency are likely outcomes. Favors are expected in a traditional culture, but such favors are considered corruption in a modern institutional context. Carefully designing, fully legitimating, and cautiously implementing the regulatory system and supervisory institutions are important steps to improve transparency and credibility.Another foreseeable challenge for the Chinese reform is the fiscal burden. How to finance the reform and to balance the objectives of economic growth and poverty reduction are major questions almost everywhere, but low-income countries such as China face additional difficulties. The empty IRAs, which were supposed to accumulate funds, are likely to increase distrust of government and of governmen t sponsored old-age security schemes. It might make sense for Chinese policy makers to introduce a system based on unfunded defined contribution accounts at least until it is clear that ational financial markets and administrative structures are ready for the demands of a partially privatized social security system. The nations in Latin America under consideration here have not succeeded with respect to coverage and compliance. In addition, transparency and fiscal stability are far from certain. This evidence suggests that without some major changes in the current policy direction, China may be headed for potentially serious pension policy problems in these four areas. The modernization pathway preceding old-age pension reform in China will likely shape the process and outcomes in these four areas.Chinese policymakers might well benefit from a close analysis of the flaws that are starting to become clear in connection with the new partially funded pension schemes that have been intr oduced in Latin America in recent years. Acknowledgments The authors acknowledge partial financial support for this project from the Center for Retirement Research at Boston College. 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